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THE WILEY TECHNICAL SERIES 

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VOCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 

EDITED BY 

JOSEPH M. JAMESON 

GIRARD COLLEGE 



THE WILEY TECHNICAL SERIES 

EDITED BY 

JOSEPH M. JAMESON 



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A corner of the apartment kitchen of the Washington Irving High 

School 



FOOD 

ITS COMPOSITION 
AND PREPARATION 

A TEXTBOOK FOR CLASSES 
IX HOUSEHOLD SCIEXCE 



BY 

MARY T. DOWD 

AND 

JEAN D. JAMESON 

Teachers of Household Science 
Washington Irving High School, New York City 



FIBST EDIT ION 



NEW YORK 

JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
1918 



/ 

\ 



v\l 






Copyright, 1918 

BY 

MARY T. DOWD and JEAX D. JAMESON 



JUL -3C 1918 



PRESS OF 

BRAUNWORTH & CO. 

BOOK MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



3 1 1 



PREFACE 



In presenting this book for the consideration of the 
public, the authors are well aware of the present very general 
practice of furnishing all necessary instructions and theory 
to Domestic Science classes through the medium of notes 
taken by the students. Indeed it is to the conviction, 
resulting from long experience with the problem, of the 
futility and inefficiency of this practice that the book owes 
its origin. Much of the time thus spent by the teacher in 
dictating, and by the student in writing, can and ought to 
be saved for more profitable use. 

It is questionable whether the advantages derived from 
note taking by elementary classes are as great as popularly 
supposed; certainly they do not compensate for the amount 
of valuable experience in the broader applications of the 
subject that is lost when the time is thus used. Moreover, 
notes taken hurriedly, as under the conditions of the class 
room, are often incorrectly copied, and the girl's attention 
is unfortunately fixed upon the mechanical process of getting 
down all that the teacher has said, rather than upon the 
comprehension of what has been said. 

It is believed by the authors that, if the subject is to be 
taught with any degree of uniformity throughout a large 
school or in a city where there are several teachers supposedly 
presenting the same subject matter, there should be some 
common material that may be put directly in the hands of 
the pupils for home study. 

The text is an elaboration of the notes dictated by the 
authors to their own High School classes. It is designed 

iii 



iv PREFACE 

to supplement the laboratory work and to bring to the pupils 
a clearer conception of the relation between the cost of 
foods and their nutritive value. 

No recipes are given for the reason that, after close 
association with many Domestic Science teachers, the con- 
clusion has been reached that each one has her own special 
recipes and considers no others quite so good. Again, the 
tendency of the age is to get away from the teaching of 
hard and fast rules for doing things and to teach, rather, the 
application of well-defined principles. The general adoption 
of a card catalogue system for the purpose of filing recipes 
makes a cook book unnecessary. 

No attempt has been made to deal with such matters as 
setting the table, table service or table etiquette, as it is 
believed that these can be taught satisfactorily only by 
actual demonstration and practice. The subject of special 
diets for invalids and infants is omitted as coming more 
properly within the scope of a treatise in dietetics. 

In studying foodstuffs, it has been the experience of 
the writers that a consideration of the simple compound 
water, made up of but two elements, is the natural starting 
point from which the pupils may be carried by easy stages 
to a consideration of the more complex compounds. 

A vocabulary of the subject has been inserted in the 
course, as familiarity with the commoner technical terms 
will be found of great assistance to a clear understanding 
of the chapters that follow. 

Mary T. Dowd. 
Jean D. Jameson. 
New York. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

Introductory 1 

Definition of Food. — Classification of Foods. — Food as a 
Source of Energy. — How Food is Like the Body Tissue. — 
Composition of Foodstuffs. — Tests for Foodstuffs. — Function 
of Foodstuffs in the Body, — Purposes of Cooking. — Processes 
of Cooking. — Digestion. — Absorption. — Assimilation. 

CHAPTER II 

Water 8 

Composition. — Kinds of Water. — Function of Water in 
the Body. — W T ater in Food. — Water as a Cooking Medium. 

CHAPTER III 

Carbohydrate in the Form of Sugar 12 

Composition. — Monosaccharides. — Disaccharides. — Func- 
tion of Sugar in Nutrition. — Digestion of Sugar. — Commercial 
Sugar. — Molasses. — Maple Sugar. — Honey. — Effects of Cook- 
ing Sugar. 

CHAPTER IV 

Carbohydrate in the Form of Starch. 18 

Composition. — Source and Structure. — Food Value. — Func- 
tion in the Body. — Tests for Starch. — Cooking of Starch. — 
Cellulose. — Digestion and Food Value of Cellulose. — Dextrin. 
— Glycogen. — Some Unusual Forms of Starch. — Tapioca, Sago, 
and Arrowroot. 

CHAPTER V 

Cereal Foods 24 

Cereals as Breakfast Foods. — Wheat. — Oats. — Indian Corn. 
— Rice. — Buckwheat. — Barley. — Rye. — Digestibility of Cere- 



VI CONTEXTS 

PAGE 

als. — Cooking of Cereals. — Macaroni. Spaghetti, and Noodles. 
— Use of Double Boiler. — The Fireless Cooker. — The Thermos 
Bottle. — The Pressure Cooker. 

CHAPTER VI 

Flour Mixtures 39 

Definition. — Leavening Agents. — Baking Powders. — Clas- 
sification of Flour Mixtures. — Hot or Quick Breads. — Cakes. — 
Sponge Cakes. — Butter Cakes. 

CHAPTER VII 

Fl<>tr Mixtures — Bread and Pastry 53 

Varieties of Wheat. — The Protein of Wheat. — Milling of 
Flour. — Yeast Bread. — Bread Mixer. — Kinds of Yeast. — 
Function of Yeast in Bread Making. — Digestibility of Bread. — 
How to Know Good Bread. — Pastry. — Digestibility of Pastry. 

CHAPTER VIII 

Vegetables 64 

Definition. — Classification of Vegetables. — Composition and 
Food Value of Vegetables. — Digestion of Vegetables. — Selec- 
tion and Care. — Cooking of Vegetables. — Preserving Vege- 
tables. — Legumes. — Food Value. — Cooking. — Soy Bean. — 
Tubers. — The Dasheen. — Bulbs, Leaves. Stems, and Shoots. — 
Fruits. — Flower Buds. — Digestion and Food Value of Green 
Vegetables. 

CHAPTER IX 

Fruits 77 

Definition. — Composition. — Digestibility. — Selection of 
Fruit. — Preparation and Cooking. — Dried Fruits. — Xuts. — 
Food Value of Xuts. — Use of Xuts in Cooking. 

CHAPTER X 

Fats and Oils S 

Composition. — Properties. — Function of Fats in Nutrition. 
— Digestibility. — Sources of Fats. — Cooking in Fats. — Prepar- 
ation of Fats. 



CONTENTS vii 

CHAPTER XI 

PAGE 

Milk 90 

Value as Food. — Composition. — Digestibility. — The Care 
of Milk.— Skim Milk.— Sour Milk.— Certified Milk.— Pas- 
teurized Milk.— Sterilized Milk.— Condensed Milk.— Milk 
Powder.— Modified Milk.— Malted Milk. — Milk in Cooking- 
Milk Products. — Butter and Cheese. 

CHAPTER XII 

Eggs 97 

Structure. — Composition and Food Value. — Digestibility. — 
Selection and Care. — Preparation and Cooking. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Meats 104 

Structure. — Kinds. — Composition. — Digestion of Meat. — 
Food Value of Meat. — Selection of Meat. — Cooking of Meat. — 
Methods of Preserving Meat. — Cuts of Beef. — Cuts of Veal. — 
Sweetbreads. — Cuts of Lamb and Mutton. — Cuts of Pork. — 
Internal Organs Used as Food. — Gelatin. 

CHAPTER XIV 

Poultry and Game 114 

Definition. — Composition and Food Value. — Selection. — 
Picking. — Chickens. — Turkeys. — Ducks and Geese. — Squab 
and Guinea Fowl. — Preparation and Cooking of Poultry. 

CHAPTER XV 

Fish 118 

Quality and Flavor. — Composition. — Digestibility of Fish. — 
How to Choose Fish. — Cooking of Fish. — Ways of Preserving. 
— Common Food Fish. — Specially Prepared Fish. — Unusual 
Types of Fish Recommended by the Bureau of Fisheries. — 
Shell Fish. — Oysters. — Clams. — Mussels. — Lobsters. — Crabs. 
— Shrimps . — Terrapin . 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XVI 

PAGE 

Mineral Matter 125 

Definition. — Function in Body. — Sources of Mineral Matter. 
— Calcium. — Iron. — Phosphorus. — Sodium Chloride. — Vita- 
mines. — Function of Vitamines in Body. 

CHAPTER XVII 

Beverages 129 

Tea. — Composition. — Classes of Tea. — Grades of Tea, — 
Adulterants of -Tea. — Coffee. — Preparation for Use. — Substitu- 
tion and Adulteration. — Chocolate and Cocoa. — Effect of Bev- 
erages on Body. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Condiments and Other Accessories 136 

Value in Diet. — Salt. — Vinegar. — Spices. — Flavoring Ex- 
tracts. 

CHAPTER XIX 

Food Requirements of the Body 140 

The Necessity for Food. — Amount of Food Required. — 
Calories. — Computation of Energy Value of Foods. — Require- 
ment for Growth and Repair.— Requirement for Body Regula- 
tion. 

CHAPTER XX 

Food Combinations in Meals 143 

Planning Meals. — Per Cent of Income for Food. — Food for 
Adults ajid Children. — Cost of Food. — Balanced Meals. — 
Variety in Diet, — The ^Esthetic Considerations. — Desirable. 
Foods.— Food Combinations. — Suggestions for Planning Meals 
— Sample Meals Showing the Approximate Number of Cal- 
ories Furnished. 

CHAPTER XXI 

The Preservation of Foods 156 

Why Foods Spoil.— Ways of Preserving Foods.— Canning 
by the Open Kettle Method.— The One-Period Cold Pack 
Method.— Intermittent Sterilization. — Use of Preservatives — 
Kinds of Preservatives. — Drying of Fruits and Vegetables. 

Glossary *65 



FOOD 

ITS COMPOSITION AND PREPARATION 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTORY 



1. Definition of Food. — Food is any substance which, 
when taken into the body, is capable of building body 
substance, yielding energy, or regulating body processes. 

2. Classification of Foods. — Foods may be classified as 
organic and inorganic. The organic foods, as the name 
implies, are derived from an organism, which organism may 
be a plant or an animal. As organic foods serve the purpose 
of replacing tissues which have been oxidized (burned) 
they themselves must be oxidizable. 

Inorganic foods serve to replace tissue which has not 
been oxidized; they are water and mineral substances and 
are not oxidizable. 

3. Food as a Source of Energy. — A plant has the power of 
taking carbon dioxide from the air, and with the aid of the 
light and heat of the sun, combining it with water from the 
soil, thus forming such compounds as starch, sugar and 
protein. Heat is absorbed during the process; therefore, 
when these compounds are oxidized in the body, they 
decompose into their original constituents, at the same 
time liberating the same amount of heat as was absorbed 
during their formation. This liberated heat is the source 
of all body energy. 



2 FOOD 

While animals cannot make use of such simple substances 
as are found in the air and the earth, they can use such 
substances when they have been transformed by the plant. 
The animals, in their turn, convert the simple substances 
into more complex substances which man designates as 
animal food. 

4. How Food is Like the Body Tissues. — If food is to 
build body tissue, it must bear some likeness to that tissue. 
As this likeness docs not lie in appearance it must in com- 
position, and chemical analysis shows this to be the case. 
Food and the body tissues are made up of similar elements 
and compounds. 

The elements are: Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, 
sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, sodium, potassium, calcium, 
magnesium, iron, fluorine, silicon, and iodine. 

The compounds arc: Water, fat, carbohydrates, protein, 
and mineral matter. These compounds, when spoken of in 
connection with food, are called foodstuffs and must not be 
confused with food materials, such as eggs, meat, cereals, etc. 

5. Composition of Foodstuffs.— Water is composed of 
the two elements oxygen and hydrogen. 

Fat is composed of the three elements oxygen, hydrogen, 
and carbon. 

Carbohydrates j which include starch and sugar, are 
composed of the same three elements that form fat, but in 
the carbohydrates the oxygen and hydrogen occur in the 
proper proportion to form water. 

Water, fat, and carbohydrates are the first of the great 
foodstuffs which the plant manufactures from the simple 
inorganic compounds. 

Proteins are the most complex of all the foodstuffs. 
They contain, in addition to the three elements found in 
fats and carbohydrates, other elements, the chief of which 
are nitrogen and sulphur. The nitrogen occurs in simpler 
substances called amino acids, and these by different com- 
binations form the various proteins. 



INTRODUCTORY 3 

Mineral Matter includes such chemical elements as iron, 
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulphur, 
and phosphorus. Some of these occur as elements while 
others are found only in combination; some occur in organic 
material while others exist only in their inorganic form. 

6. Tests for Foodstuffs.— Water may be detected in 
food by heating a small amount of the food in a test tube. 
Drops of water will form on the sides of the tube. 

Starch may be detected by adding to the food, or a 
solution of the food, a few drops ol iodine. The material 
will turn blue if starch is present. 

Sugar may be detected by boiling a small portion of the 
food in water and then adding Folding's solution.* A 
reddish brown precipitate is formed if sugar is present. 

Fat may be deleted in the following way: stir some of 
the food with ether or benzine, allow it to stand ten minutes, 
then filter it and allow the ether to evaporate. The fat will 
remain. 

Protein may be detected by the use of nitric acid and 
ammonia. The substance turns yellow if protein is present. 

Mineral Matter may be detected by burning a sample of 
the food. The residue which will not burn is mineral matter. 

7. Functions of the Foodstuffs in the Body. — The 
function of water in the body is to build tissue and regulate 
body processes. 

The chief function of fat is to yield energy, but it may be 
stored in the body as fatty tissue. 

The chief function of carbohydrate is to supply energy 
to the body, but it may furnish building material also. 

The chief function of protein is to build tissue, but it 
may also furnish energy. 

The chief function of mineral matter is to furnish build- 
ing material and to regulate body processes. 

Vitamines are substances essential to growth and nerve 
activity. 

* Fehling's solution is copper sulphate, Rochelle salts, and caustic soda. 



4 FOOD 

8. The Means by which Food is Made Available. — Food, 
in order to become available to the body, must undergo 
certain physical and chemical changes. These changes 
are brought about by such processes as cooking, digestion, 
absorption, and assimilation. 

Cooking is the preparation of food by the aid of heat. 
Such foods as milk, eggs, and certain fruits and vegetables 
may be eaten without cooking, but this is possible only 
because they have previously been subjected to a process 
similar to cooking. In the cases of the first two the heat 
coming from the body of the animal really did the cooking, 
and in the third the heat from the sun during the process 
of ripening performed the same operation. 

9. Purposes of Cooking. — Cooking is necessary for three 
distinct purposes: 

1. To kill micro-organisms. 

2. To make the food more digestible. 

3. To improve and develop flavor in the food. 

10. Processes of Cooking. — The different methods of 
applying heat to food arc known as processes of cooking, 
and are: 

1. Boiling. — Cooking in boiling water or at a temperature 
of 212° F. 

2. Broiling. — Cooking directly over or under a flame. 

3. Pan-broiling. — Cooking on a very hot frying pan 
without any fat. 

4. Baking. — Cooking in a hot oven. 

5. Roasting. — Cooking in a very hot oven. 

6. Frying. — Cooking in sufficient hot fat to cover the 
food. 

7. Sauteing. — Cooking in a frying pan in a small amount 
of fat. 

8. Steaming. — Cooking over steam. 

(a) Dry, as in a double boiler. 

(b) Moist, as in a steamer. 



INTRODUCTORY 



-Cooking in water below the boiling-point, 



-A combination of stew- 



process of changing 

7 



pii — 



9. Stewing. - 
180° F. 

10. Braising (or pot roasting;. 
ing and baking. 

11. Fricasseeing. — A combination of stewing and saute- 
ing. 

11. Digestion. — Digest ion is the 
insoluble foods to soluble. This 
process takes place in that part 
of the body known as the alimen- 
tary canal, Fig. 1. This canal 
measures from twenty to twenty- 
five feet in length. Into this canal 
is poured secretions from such 
organs as the salivary gland-, the 
pancreas, and the liver, all of 
which aid in the work of digestion. 

The parts of the alimentary 
canal are the mouth, the oesopha- 
gus, the stomach, the small in- 
testine, and the large intestine. 

12. Work of the Alimentary 
Canal. — Each part of the alimen- 
tary canal has its special work to 
do and is furnished with mechan- 
ical and chemical agents for ac- 
complishing its task. The food- 
stuffs are acted upon chemically 
in different parts of the canal. 

The Month..- — In the mouth all 
food is acted upon mechanically by 
the teeth, which grind it, and by 
the saliva, which moistens it. 
The starchy foods are further 

acted upon chemically by an enzyme called ptyalin, which 
is found in the saliva, and which has the power of changing 




Fig. 1. — Front view of the 
digestive orgjjj. 

a, r } e, colon ; 

d, duct of the srall bladder; 

a, gall bladdi 

i, small intestine; 

/, i :, liver; 

o, e, esophagus; 

p, n, pancreas; 

st, stomach. 



6 FOOD 

the insoluble starch into a form of sugar called maltose. 
From the mouth the food passes through the oesophagus 
into the stomach. 

The Stomach. — In the stomach the food is kept in motion 
by the muscular walls, which by their churning bring all the 
food in contact with the gastric juice. The connective tissue 
of meat is here dissolved, and the meat fibres loosened. 
The walls of fat cells are also dissolved, as well as certain 
mineral salts such as phosphate of lime. The protein foods 
are acted upon chemically by two enzymes found in the 
gastric juice. The first of these, pepsin, has the power of 
changing, in the presence of hydrochloric acid, the non- 
dialyzable proteins into dialyzable peptones. The second 
enzyme, rennin, coagulates the caseinogen of milk, which is 
a necessary change before the milk can be digested by the 
pepsin. It is thought by some that a third enzyme is 
present in the gastric juice which acts upon emulsified fats. 

After the food has remained in the stomach from one 
to five hours the mass is reduced to a grayish, semi-liquid 
state in which condition it is known as chyme, and begins to 
pass in small amounts into the small intestine. 

The Small Intestine. — Here the food comes in contact 
with the pancreatic juice, an important digestive fluid fur- 
nished by the pancreas; with the bile, a fluid manufactured 
by the liver; and with the intestinal juice, which is secreted 
by the glands that line the small intestine. 

Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes: trypsin, 
amylopsin, and steapsin or lipase. The trypsin acts upon 
any proteins which may have escaped the action of the 
pepsin; the amylopsin acts upon undigested starch, changing 
it into maltose even more quickly than the ptyalin can; 
and the lipase serves to emulsify fats and to some extent 
break them up into fatty acids and glycerin. The action 
of the bile is to help in the absorption of fats and by its 
alkalinity to counteract the acidity of the chyme. 

The intestinal juice has no special action except upon the 



INTRODUCTORY 7 

sugars, converting maltose into grape sugar. After the 
food has been acted upon by the various fluids in the small 
intestine, it changes from acid clrymc into alkaline chyle, 
in which condition much of it is absorbed. Food which is 
by nature indigestible, or which has been made so by im- 
proper cooking, passes from the small intestine into the 
large. 

The Large Intestine. — While the large intestine has no 
enzyme of its own, the walls furnish a fluid which helps to 
complete digestive changes which have already begun. 
Absorption takes place here to some extent and the residue 
of the food is here evacuated from the body. 

13. Absorption. — Much of the digested food is absorbed 
from the small intestine. All the digested carbohydrate 
and protein foods are taken up by the epithelial cells, and 
the fats are taken by the lacteals or lymph vessels. These 
are tiny thread-like tubes which convey the fats to the 
thoracic duct, lying in front of and to one side of the back 
bone. From there the fats are poured into the blood stream. 
The other foods are absorbed by the blood capillaries which 
carry them by the portal system to the liver and thence 
to the heart to be sent with the blood to nourish all parts 
of the body. 

14. Assimilation. — Assimilation is the process by which 
each part of the body works over into its own substance 
material derived from the food eaten. 



CHAPTER II 
WATER 

15. Composition. — In composition water is the simplest 
of the foodstuffs, as it is made up of but two elements, 
oxygon and hydrogen. 

While water is not capable of yielding energy because 
it contains no unoxidized hydrogen, its function in the body 
is c>f such vital importance that it must l>e considered most 
essential. 

16. Kinds of Water. — Water is hard or soft, according 
to the amount of mineral matter present in it. The hard- 
ness oi some water is due to the presence of lime salts which, 
if in excess, may interfere with the general health. These 
salts may be eliminated by boiling the water. This process 
will drive off the carbon dioxide which holds the carbonates 
in solution and the lime will he precipitated. Boiling also 
removes organic impurities. To remove the insipid taste 
which results from boiling, the water, after having been 
cooled, may be shaken vigorously. 

17. Functions of Water in the Body. — Water serves as 
building material, two-thirds of the body weight being made 
up of water. It gives firmness and elasticity to the tissues 
and constitutes four-fifths of the blood. 

Water acts as a great solvent in the body, carries nutri- 
ment to all the tissues, and conveys the effete matter to the 
organs through which it is eliminated. It also keeps the 
Quids of the body in their liquid state. 

Water acts as a body regulating substance and a stimu- 
lant; particularly is it important in the digestive tract 
where experiment has shown that the production of hydro- 

S 



WATER 9 

chloric acid in the stomach is greatly accelerated after 
drinking a glass of water. There is proof also that water 
aids digestion by acting as a diluent on certain digestive 
juices, thereby increasing their solvent power. 

18. Amount of Water Required. — The amount of water 
which the body requires varies and is dependent upon the 
surrounding temperature, the amount of muscular activity 
indulged in, and the nature of the food eaten. 

One of the most prevalent dietary errors is the use of 
too little water in the diet. The daily requirement is 
approximately four pints. About one-fourth this amount 
is obtained from the food eaten. 

19. Water in Food. — All foods, no matter how dry they 
may appear to be, contain some water, and some vegetables, 
such as asparagus, contain as high as 94 per cent of water. 
The keeping quality of all foods depends largely upon the 
amount of water they contain. Foods containing more than 
20 per cent of water cannot be stored, owing to their tendency 
to mold. Flour or cereals that are to be kept any length of 
time must not contain higher than 10 to 12 per cent of 
water. 

TABLE I.— FOODS HAVING A HIGH WATER CONTEXT 

Weight in ounces of the 100-calorie portion 

Watermelon 28| ozs. 

Cucumbers 20 \ ozs. 

Celery 19 ozs. 

Lettuce 18| ozs. 

Muskmelon 18 ozs. 

Asparagus 16 ozs. 

Rhubarb 15 \ ozs. 

Tomatoes 14i ozs. 

Egg plant 14£ ozs. 

Spinach 14f ozs. 

Radishes 12 ozs. 

Peaches 10§ ozs. 

Cabbage, l\\ ozs. 

Buttermilk 9| ozs. 



10 FOOD 

20. Water as a Cooking Medium. — Water is necessary 
in the preparation of food and for this purpose soft water is 
preferable. 

All foods are not cooked at the same temperature, and 
the degree of heat must be adapted to the food in question. 
If water is raised slowly to the boiling-point, the following 
changes will be observed. Tiny bubbles will appear on the 
bottom and sides of the vessel but will break before reaching 
the surface. These bubbles are caused by the air and gases 
which have been confined in the water being driven off 
by the heat (it is the loss of these which causes the flat 
taste of boiled water). As the temperature rises, the 
bubbles in the water will become larger and more nearly 
spherical and will reach the surface before they break. At 
this point the water is said to boil, and a thermometer intro- 
duced into it will register 212° F. or 100° C; for an open 
vessel at sea level, no matter how rapidly the water may boil, 
the temperature, under ordinary conditions, will rise no higher, 
the surplus heat being used to convert the water into steam. 

21. Raising the Boiling-point. — The boiling-point of 
water may be raised: (1) By increasing the pressure — for 
example boiling in a confined space, as in a steam boiler 
under a pressure of five pounds of steam, when the water 
will not boil until it reaches 227° F. 

(2) By increasing the density — for example a very 
strong salt solution will not boil until it reaches 22G° F., and 
a sugar solution may have a boiling-point between 215° 
and 350° F. 

22. Lowering the Boiling-point. — The boiling-point of 
water is lower than 212° F. when the pressure of the atmos- 
phere is less than fifteen pounds to the square inch. In high 
altitudes, as in Denver, Colorado, water boils at a tempera- 
ture of 202° F., and on some points in the Himalaya Moun- 
tains it boils at a temperature as low as 180° F. Under 
such conditions it is difficult to properly cook foods which 
require a high temperature. 



WATER 11 



EXPERIMENTS 



Experiment 1. To Show the Effect of Boiling on Hard Water. — ■ 
Half fill a beaker with lime water. Blow through a glass tube into the 
water until it loses its cloudy appearance and becomes clear. (This 
shows that excess of carbon dioxide keeps lime in solution.) Boil this 
water and notice the deposit of carbonate of lime on the bottom and 
sides of the beaker. Add a little acid to this deposit and observe the 
effervescence that takes place. 

Half fill an evaporating dish with water from the faucet. Let it 
evaporate over a Bunsen burner, and test the residue as in the above 
experiment. 

Experiment 2. To Show Effect of Density on the Boiling-point 
of Water. — -(a) Boil water, taking the temperature. 

(b) Boil a saturated salt solution and take the temperature. 

Experiment 3. To Show the Rapidity of Evaporation. — Put the 
same amount of water in each of two vessels; one deep and exposing 
but little surface, the other shallow and exposing a large surface. 
Boil both slowly and observe in which vessel the water boils away first. 



CHAPTER III 
CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR 

23. Composition. — Carbohydrate foodstuffs are a com- 
bination of the three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen are present in the com- 
mon foods of this class in the proportion to form water. 

For purposes of more thorough study, the carbohydrates 
are sometimes divided into three main groups according 
to their molecular weight. 

Group 1. Monosaccharides. — These comprise simple 
sugars which cannot be split into other sugars of the same or 
simpler form. They are: glucose, fructose, and galactose. 

Group 2. LHsaccharides. — These comprise the complex 
sugars which may be split into two simple sugars. They 
include: sucrose, maltose, and lactose. 

Group 3. Polysaccharides. — These are substances which 
yield an unknown number of simple sugars. Included in 
the group are: starch, dextrin, and glycogen. 

24. Monosaccharides. — Monosaccharides are soluble crys- 
talline substances which are absorbed into the blood stream 
without further change. 

The members of this group have the common formula 
of C6H12O6. The source and distinguishing characteristics 
of each of the simple sugars will be considered in turn. 

Glucose, sometimes called dextrose, is the most important 
of the simple sugars as it is in this form that sugar appears 
in the blood. Normal blood contains about 0.1 per cent 
of glucose which is being burned continually to produce 
body energy. Any surplus of glucose absorbed from the 
digestive tract is stored in the body as glycogen, which is 

12 



CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR 13 

in turn reconverted into glucose to be burned as needed for 
energy. 

Fructose, or levulose, like glucose, is found as such in 
some plants and vegetables and in large quantities in honey. 

Galactose is of considerable importance in nutrition 
since it is a product of the digestion of milk. It is utilized 
in the formation of glycogen in the liver. 

25. Disaccharides. — The disaccharides are complex sugars 
having a formula of C12H22O11. They are soluble sub- 
stances and are changed to simple sugars in the process of 
digestion. 

Sucrose, or cane sugar, is found in nature in the juices 
of certain plants. Sugar cane and the sugar beet yield 
large quantities of sucrose and form the chief sources of the 
commercial sugars. 

Maltose is formed from starch by the action of acids 
and enzymes. Maltose also occurs in malt and malt 
extracts. 

Lactose, or sugar of milk, is found in the milk of mam- 
mals. It is obtained for commercial use from the whey 
of milk after the curd has been removed in the making of 
cheese. Lactose is not easily fermented and is, therefore, 
used in modifying cow's milk for infants. 

26. Polysaccharides. — Polysaccharides are complex sub- 
stances. They are considered at length in Chapter IV. 

27. Functions of Sugar in Nutrition. — (1) As a Source of 
Energy. The chief function of sugar in nutrition is to supply 
energy to the body. It is especially well adapted for use 
as an energy producer because it is ready for almost immedi- 
ate absorption into the blood stream. Theoretically, sugar 
is not essential in a modern dietary where starches are 
used, since all starches are changed to sugar in the process of 
digestion. It is recommended that sugar be used in small 
amounts for flavoring and to give variety to the diet rather 
than as a source of energy. 

(2) As a building material. Sugar, in the form of galac- 



14 FOOD 

tose, is found in the growth stimulating part of the nerve 
cells. An excess of sugar in the system is converted into 
fat and stored in the body substances. 

(3) As a body regulating substance. Without carbo- 
hydrate, fat cannot burn normally in the body. In other 
words, fat must burn in a flame of carbohydrate. Unless 
the calories furnished by carbohydrate exceed those furnished 
by fat, an abnormal condition of nutrition known as acidosis 
is liable to obtain. This condition is caused by the presence 
of acid in the body substances rather than in the blood. 

28. Digestion of Sugar. — There is no ferment or digestive 
juice in the body that acts upon the monosaccharides, 
glucose, fructose, and galactose. These substances are 
absorbed from the intestines without further change, and 
pass into the portal vein by which they are carried to the 
liver. Some of this sugar is changed to glycogen and 
stored in the liver, and the rest is passed on through the 
blood stream to the tissues, where it is burned to CO2 and 
HoO to yield energy for work, or is stored in the muscular 
tissue as glycogen or fat. 

In the case of the complex sugars or disaccharides, there 
is no digestive action in the mouth or in the stomach, but 
the intestinal membrane secretes a substance known as 
succus entericus, or intestinal juice, containing the three 
enzymes, sucrose, maltose, and lactase, which act in turn 
upon the disaccharides and change these double sugars 
into two single sugars as follows: 

Sucrose +sucrase = glucose and fructose. 
Maltose +maltase = glucose and glucose. 
Lactose +lactase = glucose and galactose. 

The processes of absorption and assimilation as glucose, 
fructose, and galactose go on with but little tax on the 
digestive organs. 

The polysaccharides are taken through a much more 
complicated process of digestion, but finally reach the same 



CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR 15 

end and serve the same purpose in the general scheme of 
nutrition. The digestion of starch probably continues for a 
time in the stomach, or until the reaction of the contents 
has become acid, and then ceases until the small intestine 
is reached. Here is found another enzyme, secreted by the 
pancreas and known as amylopsin, which completes the 
change of all starch not already taken care of by the ptyalin 
in the mouth to maltose, a double sugar. 

29. Commercial Sugar. — The commercial forms in which 
sugar may be obtained are more or less familiar to all. Cut 
sugar is undoubtedly the purest form in which cane sugar 
may be purchased. Granulated sugar is the most desirable 
for general use. There is very little difference chemically 
between sugar made from sugar cane and that made from 
the sugar beet, but many housewives prefer the cane sugar 
for cake and candy making. 

30. Molasses. — Molasses is the liquid left after the sugar 
crystals are removed in the manufacture of sugar. It 
contains a considerable quantity of sucrose and many of 
the other constituents of the sugar cane juice. 

The adoption of modern methods in the making of sugar 
has had a tendency to increase the amount of sucrose 
removed by crystallization and to decrease the amount of 
molasses remaining, as well as to lower its sugar content. 
The molasses of the present time is inferior in sweetening 
power and in other characteristics to that formerly produced. 

31. Maple Sugar and Syrup. — By evaporating the sap 
of the sugar maple until more than half of the water has 
been removed and the product is of proper consistency, 
maple sugar and maple syrup are obtained. Maple syrup 
is highly prized for table use. The unadulterated article is 
expensive and difficult to obtain. It is not uncommon to 
find maple syrup adulterated with a solution of refined cane 
sugar, since the latter is less expensive than the pure maple 
sugar. 

32. Honey. — Pure honey consists of a mixture of cane, 



16 FOOD 

grape, and fruit sugars, collected from the flowers and 
modified by the bees. 

In addition to sugar and water, honey contains a very 
slight amount of protein, 1 per cent of mineral matter, 
and certain volatile oils to which are due the peculiar odor 
and flavor. The differences in color and flavor are attrib- 
uted to the characteristic nectars in the different flowers 
upon which the bees feed. Clover honey is considered 
far superior to the dark colored and strong flavored article 
commonly supposed to be made from buckwheat blossoms. 

Honey, as has been stated, contains more fructose 
than glucose and is therefore more readily absorbed into the 
blood stream than cane sugar. It is also less liable to cause 
digestive disturbances due to fermentation. One cup of 
honey is equal to one cup of cane sugar in sweetening power 
and may be used in place of sugar. Honey is also a sub- 
stitute for molasses and may be used in any way that 
molasses is used. It must be remembered, however, in 
using honey thai the acidity of honey is about one half 
that of molasses and only one-fourth teaspoonful of soda 
is required to one cupful of honey to neutralize the acid. 
Like maple syrup, strained honey is easily adulterated with 
sugar syrups. 

33. Effects of Cooking Sugar. — The boiling of cane sugar 
and water together, called the hydrolysis of sugar, changes 
it into equal parts of glucose and fructose. 

Cane sugar, when cooked for a long time with acid 
fruits, is converted into grape sugar or glucose and thereby 
loses about one third of its sweetening power. This is the 
reason why the sugar should be added to jams, jellies, and 
sauces made from acid fruits when the cooking process is 
nearly completed. 

Cane sugar cooked alone is changed first to barley 
sugar, then to caramel, and finally to carbon. When the 
sugar is melted and changed to a light brown color, it has 
made the first change and is known as barley sugar. As the 



CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF SUGAR 17 

melted sugar is heated to a temperature of 350° F. this brown 
liquid is converted into a ncn-crystallizable fluid having a 
slightly bitter but pleasant taste, which indicates that it 
has reached the caramel stage. This caramel is used as a 
flavoring substance for creams and sauces and to give color 
to soup stock. Because of its mildness caramel is frequently 
recommended as a desirable flavoring in invalid cookery. 

Carbon, which is the next step after cararrvel, is the final 
stage in the cooking of sugar. It is the burned product. 

Table II will be found a valuable aid in the preparation of 
icings and caramel and in candy making when a chemical 
thermometer is used. 

TABLE II 

Stages in Cooking Sugar 

Small thread 215° F. 

Large thread 217° F. 

Pearl 220° F. 

Blow 230° F. 

Feather 232° F. 

Soft ball 238° F. 

Hardball 248' F. 

Crack 310° F. 

Caramel 350° F. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Experiment 1. — Compare cane sugar and glucose as to: (a) struc- 
ture; (b) solubility: (c) taste. 

Experiment 2. — Test different kinds of sugar with Fehling's solu- 
tion and state the results of your tests. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter 
make: 

Cake icing. Use this on Margueri* 

Candy, and compare the cost of home-made with factory candy. 

Caramel sauce. 



CHAPTER IV 



CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH 




^v 



34. Composition. Starch, which is made up of the three 
elements carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, is the most important 
of that class of carbohydrates known as the polysaccharides. 
Not only is it important as a food substance, but from it 
is made dextrin or British gum, commercial glucose, and 
other products. 

35. Source and Structure. — Starch is formed in all 
plants. It is the form in which the plant stores its food 

for future consumption and is confined 
in tiny sacs or cells. The seeds, roots, 
tubers, and bulbs are the storage points. 
If examined under the microscope, the 
starch is seen to be in the form of 
minute granules or grains which differ 
in size and shape according to the 
source from which they come. The 
grains in potato starch, Fig. 2, are 
relatively large, being soo of an inch 
in diameter and shaped like a kidney 
bean. The grains of wheat starch are small, Torero of an 
inch in diameter. The walls of the cells are composed of 
cellulose. Starch is obtained commercially from corn, 
potatoes, and wheat. Glucose, as has been stated, is pro- 
duced from starch by subjecting it to the action of acids. 
Dextrin and maltose are intermediate products of this 
action. 

36. Food Value. — Starch from different sources forms 

18 




Fig. 2. — Grains of 
potato starch. 



CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH 19 

a large part of our diet, and because it can be manufactured 
by the plant from carbon dioxide and water, it is an inex- 
pensive product. 

As the starch in its natural state is not soluble and there- 
fore cannot be made available to the body, it must be 
changed chemically during the process of digestion. This 
change is brought about by the action of certain enzymes 
found in the mouth, pancreatic, and intestinal juices. The 
effect of their action is to change the starch first into dex- 
trin, then into maltose and finally into glucose, in which 
latter form it is absorbed into the blood stream. The ease 
with which these changes are affected depends greatly 
upon the source from which the starch comes; potato 
starch is supposed to be acted upon much more readily 
than starch from cereals. Rice starch is comparatively 
easy of digestion, though this ease may possibly be attrib- 
uted to the small amount of cellulose present. 

37. Functions of Starch in the Body. — \Yhile the chief 
function of starch in the body is to yield energy, this is by 
no means its only function. Starch plays a most important 
part in the construction of body tissue, appearing as it 
does in small quantities in the nucleo-protein of all proto- 
plasmic tissue. 

Starch also acts as a body regulator. Owing to its 
high oxygen content and the ease with which this oxygen 
may be liberated, it furnishes an excellent method of con- 
veying this element to the various tissues. Starch, because 
of its non-stimulating and colloidal nature, protects the 
delicate walls of the intestines from the action of the more 
irritating crystalloids or sugars. 

The body shows a decided preference for starch as a 
source of energy, and the over consumption of this sub- 
stance is not attended by the harmful results which follow 
over indulgence in other foodstuffs. When more starch 
is eaten than the body requires, it is stored as glycogen 
and later as fatty tissue, or when not stored, it is completely 



20 FOOD 

oxidized to carbon dioxide and water and eliminated through 
the lungs and kidneys. 

38. Test for Starch. — The presence of starch in a sub- 
stance may be detected by the use of iodine which, when 
added to a solution of starch, gives a blue reaction. 

39. The Cooking of Starch. — Although there is at present 
some question as to the desirability of the high temperature 
and the long cooking popularly supposed to be a necessary 
preliminary to the proper digestion of starch, the superior 
flavor of thoroughly cooked starch over that of the under- 
cooked offers a strong plea for long cooking. 

Starch will not dissolve in cold water unless modified 
chemically; neither does cold water affect the starch granule. 

Hot water at first merely causes the starch grains to 
swell, thereby stretching the cellulose covering until so thin 
that the water will pass through. Prolonged action of 
boiling water brings about chemical changes which result 
in a soluble substance. 

Owing to its physical properties, starch can be used as a 
thickening substance, and for this purpose it comes in the 
form of a white, glistening powder. When so used, it should 
be mixed witli a cold liquid, with sugar, or with fat before 
adding it to a hot liquid. These substances separate the 
starch grains so that the hot liquid reaches all the grains 
at the same time, causing them to swell uniformly and 
produce a smooth, gelatinous mass free from lumps. 

40. Cellulose. — Cellulose is classed with starch as a 
carbohydrate, and is the substance which forms the cell 
walls in all plants as well as the frame work of the plant. 
The amount of cellulose present varies in different parts 
of the plant and at different stages of the plant's growth. 
It is more abundant in old than in young plants. The 
increased difficulty of digesting vegetable foods as compared 
to animal food is attributed to the presence of cellulose 
which, by enclosing the nutrients in its fibrous envelope, 
prevents the free access of the digestive juices. 



CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH 21 

41. Digestion and Food Value of Cellulose. — While some 
animals can digest cellulose, the human digestive tract is 
furnished with no enzyme for this purpose. The cellulose 
from young plants is sometimes digested in the human 
organism, but this is brought about by the action of intes- 
tinal bacteria, . the result being probably the formation 
of sugar that may yield energy. 

Cellulose cannot be regarded as having much food value, 
but it does fulfill a mission in giving a certain amount of 
bulk to the food and acting as a stimulant to peristaltic 
action. The virtue attributed to the cellulose present in 
certain whole grains is now questioned, and the theory is 
advanced that the stimulating properties of the grains may 
be due to the salts found in the grain covering rather than 
to the covering itself. 

42. Dextrin. — Dextrin is made from starch which has 
been subjected to a high degree of dry heat, 2C0° C, 
and also by heating starch with dilute acid. It is soluble 
in water and is more digestible than starch, having taken 
one step towards the formation of sugar. This fact accounts 
for the increased digestibility of the crust of bread over the 
crumb, and of crisp toast over plain bread. 

43. Glycogen. — Glycogen, sometimes called "animal 
starch," is the form of starch found stored in the liver and 
muscles of the body. After meals, when there is a specified 
amount of glucose in the blood of the portal vein and 
sufficient oxygen is present, the liver changes glucose (sugar) 
into glycogen and holds it until called for by the tissues. 
Later on, however, the liver changes some of this glycogen 
back into sugar in order to provide oxygen for its own 
respiration. 

44. Less Familiar Forms of Starch. — (1) Tapioca is 
derived from a plant of the cassava variety belonging to 
the milk weed family. These plants are poisonous owing 
to the natural development in them of prussic acid. This, 
however, is a volatile substance, and when the cassava 



22 FOOD 

root is heated or boiled or even subjected to the direct 
rays oi the sun tor a few hours, most of the poisonous ma- 
terial disappears. 

The tapioca is prepared by grindiiig the root of the plant, 
then washing it in water and. while the starch is still satu- 
rated with moisture, subjecting it to a low degree of heat 
which is gradually increased until the starch grains are 
disintegrated into a firm, gelatinous mass. The heat is 
then continued at a suitable temperature until all the 
moist tire is evaporated. To this process is due the ease 
with which tapioca is cooked and digested. 

(2) Sago >n Starch is made from the pith of the 

.-ago palm. It closely resembles tapioca. 

Arrowroot is so named from the fact that the natives 
in the countries where it grows use the bruised rhizomes 
of the plant as a poultice for poisoned arrow wounds. The 
starch from arrowroot has greater thickening properties 
than starch from other sources. 

EXPERIMENTS 
Experiment 1. Potato Starch. — Grate a raw . into a piece 

of cheese-cloth, squeeze out all water and wash the contents of the cloth 

thoroughly in cold water. Allow the water to clear, pour off the 
clear liquid, and dry the residue at a temperature of 70° C. in a water 
bath. Test a small portion of the residue with iodine. I'se one 
teaspoonful or this starch to thicken \ cup of liquid. I'se one tea- 
nful of corn starch to thicken \ cup of liquid. Compare the thick- 
ening properties of potato starch and corn starch. Dry the fibrous 
substance left in the cloth to show the cellulose 

Experiment 2. Effect of Boiling Water on Dry Starch. — Pour 
boiling water on dry starch and observe the effect. Break open and 
examine the lumps formed. 

Experiment 3. Effect of Boiling Water and Stirring upon Starch. — 

Mix two bablespoonfuls of starch with two tablespoonfuls of cold 
water. Add 1 cup of boiling water, stirring constantly. Note the 
effect. 

[b^ Proceed as above, using one tablespoonful of sugar in place 
Id water. Add boiling water. Note the effect. 

[e) Proceed as in (a), using two tablespoonfuls of fat in place of 
cold water. Add boiling water. Note the effect. 



CARBOHYDRATE IN THE FORM OF STARCH 23 

Experiment 4. Effect of Acid on Starch. — (a) Add lemon juice 
to a starch solution and continue cooking. Observe the effect and 
explain. Divide the result in two portions. 

(6) Test result of (a) with iodine. 

(c) Test result of (a) with Fehling's solution. 

Explain. 

Experiment 5. Experiment Showing Starch Digestion. — Collect 
and filter a small amount of saliva. Add it to starch paste in a test 
tube. Keep the tube in a water bath not above 98° F. for fifteen 
minutes. 

Test one-half the amount with iodine. 

Test one-half the amount with Fehling's solution. 

Explain the results of the tests. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Make a mould of corn starch pudding. 
Make a cup of medium white sauce. 



CHAPTER V 
CEREAL FOODS 

45. Cereals. — The cereals, so named, from Ceres, god- 
dess of grain and the harvest, include the grains or cultivated 
grasses whose seeds are used for food. The cereals most 
used in the various preparations known as breakfast foods 
are wheat, oats, and Indian corn or maize. 

Rice, rye, barley and buckwheat belong to the cereals, 
but they are not commonly made into mush or porridge 
to be served as a breakfast dish. 

46. Wheat. — Wheat is the typical bread-making grain, 
although innumerable preparations of wheat in the form 
of breakfast foods are to be found on the market. Of these 
Farina, Wheatena, and Cream of Wheat, in which the wheat 
kernels are finely ground, are very generally used. Cracked 
Wheat, Petti John, Shredded Wheat, and Puffed Wheat, are all 
well-known preparations. 

47. Oats. — From Table III, in which is given the com- 
position of cereals, it will be seen that oats are rich in pro- 
tein, fat, and mineral matter. They contain also a good 
percentage of carbohydrate. Oats are probably the most 
nutritious of all the cereals 

In the preparation of whole oats, or Scotch oats, the 
grains are first scoured and the husk removed. For the 
rolled oat products, the form in which oats are most com- 
monly used as breakfast food, the grains are rolled instead 
of being crushed or ground, that is, they are subjected to 
great pressure which breaks down the cellulose and flattens 
the grains so that they are easily softened by the cooking 
process. By the application of heat during the rolling 

24 



CEREAL FOODS 



25 




BICE RYE BARLEY 

Fig. 3. — Heads of the common grains. 



26 FOOD 

process, the grains are partially cooked, though not to the 
extent claimed upon most packages. 

This application of heat is also said to act upon the fats 
present in such a manner as to preserve their natural flavor 
and to prevent them from becoming rancid when they 
stand. 

48. Indian Corn or Maize. — Corn is a native American 
plant, and is important as a crop in this country because 
of its value as food for man and for fattening animals. 

Corn is used for food chiefly in the form of meal, from 
which mush and many varieties of hot breads are made. 
Meal is the name given to the product made by grinding a 
whole grain without separating or bolting to remove the 
outside or bran coats. Yellow corn meal and white corn 
meal have practically the same food value, and may be used 
interchangeably in preparing corn dishes. 

Hominy, samp, and hulled corn, are other preparations 
of corn in which the kernels are broken to varying degrees 
of fineness. Hominy is popular as a breakfast food, while 
samp and hulled corn are gaining in favor as a dinner dish 
in place of potatoes or other starchy foods. 

Commercial starch and corn syrup, or commercial glu- 
cose, are made from corn. 

49. Rice. — While rice is the poorest of all the cereals in 
protein and fat content, it has the highest percentage of 
starch. This starch is found in small and easily digested 
granules, which give to rice a special dietetic value in cer- 
tain diseases. Rice is eaten whole with cream or milk or 
in soups. The polishing of rice, by which a part of the 
outer coat is removed, improves its appearance and increases 
its selling quality, but decreases its nutritive value. About 
one-half of the mineral matter, which is chiefly in the form 
of phosphates, is lost in the polishing process. This mineral 
matter is of great importance in the maintenance of health. 
People are coming to realize this fact and to demand of 
the dealers the brown or unpolished rice. 



CEREAL FOODS 



27 




Fig. 4. — Corn. 
(From McCall's ""Studies of Crops.") 



28 



FOOD 



50. Buckwheat. — Although buckwheat is not a cereal 
in the sense of belonging to the grasses, it is sometimes 
grouped with the cereals as a matter of convenience. From 
this grain is made the Hour which is used for buckwheat 
cakes. It also forms a poultry food highly prized by poultry- 
men, as it is popularly thought to increase the laying capacity 
of the hens. 

51. Barley. — The chief characteristic of barley is its 
richness in mineral matter. Barley is sold as pearl barley, 
which is the whole kernel after the hull lias been removed 
by machinery, and in the form of a meal used in preparing 
barley water and barley gruel. The meal is also mixed with 
other meals in the making of a black bread extensively 
used in some countries. 

In this country barley is used largely in the production 
of malt. 

52. Rye. — Because of the amount and quality of the 
gluten it contains, rye flour can be made into bread. This 
is practically the only use made of this grain in the United 
States. 

It should be noted that, of all grains, wheat and rye 
are the only ones that contain gluten in the proper pro- 
portion to make bread of a light and porous texture. 

TABLE III.— PERCENTAGE OF FOODSTUFFS IN DIFFERENT 

CEREALS 



Cereal. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Rice (polished) 
Rice (in husks) 

Oats 

Maize 

Barley 

Buckwheat 



Protein. 

11.0 

10.2 
G.9 
6 . 8 

13.0 
9.7 

10.1 

10.2 



( !arbo- 
hydrate. 

71.2 

72.3 
79 . 4 
68.1 
68.6 
68.9 
69.5 
c,l 3 



Fat. 

1.7 
2 . 3 
0.4 
1.6 
8.1 
5.4 

1.9 

•> o 



Mineral 
Matter. 



1.9 

2.1 

.5 

4.0 

2.1 

1.5 

2 4 
9 o 



Water. 

12.0 
11.0 
12.4 
10.5 
6.9 
12.5 
L2.3 
13.0 



Cellu- 
lose. 



2.2 

2.1 

.4 

9.0 

1.3 

2.0 

11.8 

11.1 



CEREAL FOODS 29 

53. Digestibility of Cereals. — The digestibility of all 
cereal products depends largely upon the thoroughness 
with which they are cooked. It is desirable that the cell 
walls of the starch grains be softened and ruptured by 
thorough cooking to prepare them for the action of the 
digestive fluids. It has been demonstrated that cooked 
starch is more easily and quickly changed to maltose than 
raw starch. 

As a group, the nutrients of the cereals are readily 
absorbed and assimilated. Cereals rank next to the animal 
foods in this respect. The cellulose, which is not itself 
digested, furnishes bulk to the food to excite the peristaltic 
motion of the stomach and hasten the digestive process. 

Thorough mastication is essential with starchy foods, 
since it not only divides the food into smaller particles but 
also insures a thorough mixing with the saliva, thus making 
possible the action of the ptyalin on the starch. 

Fruits eaten with cereals are valuable aids to digestion, 
as the added flavor and increased attractiveness of the 
dish stimulates the glands to an increased flow of digestive 
juices. 

Numerous uncooked cereal preparations are offered for 
sale. These have the advantage of being ready for immedi- 
ate use, thereby saving time, labor, and fuel, but undoubtedly 
have a questionable nutritive value, as compared with the 
cooked whole grains. 

54. The Use of Sealed Packages. — Package cereal foods, 
although more expensive than the same weight sold in 
bulk, are usually to be preferred on account of the possibility 
of greater cleanliness which they offer. The packages are 
sealed to protect the contents from dust, dirt and germs, 
and the additional few cents per pound in cost is a wise 
expenditure of money. So much stress has been placed 
upon this precaution of recent years that it is now almost 
impossible to obtain cereals in bulk. 

55. Cooking Cereals. — The chief purposes in cooking 



30 FOOD 

cereals are to sterilize them, to improve their flavor and 
appearance, and to make them more digestible by breaking 
down the cell walls, thus enabling the digestive juices to 
reach the nutrients. 

Since it has been found that starch grains are not 
ruptured by heat below that of the boiling-point of water, 
it is important that the first part of the cooking process 
should take place at that temperature. This may be accom- 
plished by placing the vessel containing the cereal directly 
over the fire for the first five or ten minutes, after which 
the cereal may be allowed to steam until completely cooked. 
The time required for cooking varies with the kind of grain 
and the method of preparation. In general, the finely 
ground or rolled products require less time than the whole 
grains. 

The theory that long exposure to a high temperature 
is harmful to the growth-producing element found in the 
whole grain should be considered, and excessive heating 
should be guarded against. 

Before cereals are ready for eating, a sufficient amount 
of water must be added to swell the starch grains and form 
a mixture of the proper consistency. As a rule the coarse- 
rolled grains require twice as much liquid as there is cereal, 
and the finely ground wheat or corn products about four 
times as much. 

Table IV shows the proportions of cereal and water, and 
time of cooking for the different cereal foods. 

56. Fruits and other Accompaniments to Cereals. — 
Since the cereal foods are largely carbohydrate, the addi- 
tion of fruits, fresh or stewed, increases their nutritive 
value by adding mineral salts and other nutrients, as well 
as their palat ability by supplying flavor and variety. Dates, 
figs, or raisins, moulded with the cereal and served with 
cream, make a pleasing and satisfying luncheon dish for 
children. Fresh fruits, such as berries, bananas, and ripe 
peaches, are a suitable addition to the uncooked and to 



CEREAL FOODS 



31 



TABLE IV.— PROPORTIONS AND TIME OF COOKING FOR 
THE COMMON CEREALS 



Kind. 



A mt. Cereal, 
Cups. 



Water, 
Cups. 



Time, 
Hours. 



Rolled oats 

H.O 

Quaker oats .... 

Whole oats 

Pettijohn 

Whole wheat. . . . 
Cream of whec t . 

Wheatena 

Corn meal 

Hominy 

Rice (steamed). . 
Rice (boiled). . . . 
Barley (steamed) 



4 


6-8 


2 


1 


4 


6-8 


4 


1 


3| 


3 


4 


1 


2^ 


2 


8-12 


20min 


o 
O 


9 



many of the cooked cereals. The acid and mineral substances 
which they contain are desirable adjuncts to starchy 
foods. 

Starch, as has been stated, is converted into sugar in the 
digestive process, therefore sugar is an unnecessary addition 
to breakfast foods except to give flavor. If used at all, it 
should be used sparingly. Milk and cream, however, sup- 
ply the protein and the fat in which cereals are more or less 
deficient, and in addition furnish the growth-stimulating 
principles or vit amines which milk and cream are known 
to contain. 

57. Macaroni, Spaghetti and Noodles. — Macaroni, spa- 
ghetti and kindred substances are made from a hard, spring 
wheat flour which is rich in gluten. Because of the gluten, 
a substance is produced which can be drawn or moulded 
into various different forms such as tubes, shreds, letters, 
etc. Water is added to the flour to make a paste of the 
proper consistency, which, when formed as desired, is 
thoroughly dried. All of these products absorb about three 



32 FOOD 

times their weight of water in cooking and increase in bulk 
to a corresponding degree. 

Domestic macaroni and similar products manufactured 
in factories in this country are to be preferred to the home- 
made products of uncertain cleanliness. Good macaroni 
may be judged by its deep cream color and rough texture. 
The best macaroni breaks without splitting and keeps its 
shape after cooking. 

By the addition of cheese or various other sauces to 
macaroni or spaghetti, a simple and satisf3'ing meat sub- 
stitute may be made. 

Noodles, made from flour, salt, and egg, in a variety of 
forms, are added to soup stock to make noodle soup or 
may be served in place of a vegetable with the meat 
course. 

58. Use of the Double Boiler.— A double boiler, or its 
equivalent, a small sauce pan placed in a larger pan of water, 
is commonly used in cooking cereals. When the cereal 
has been started in the inner boiler directly over the fire, 
the parts of the boiler are placed together and the cooking 
completed by the dry-steaming method. The double boiler 
does away with the necessity for stirring and watching to 
keep the food from burning. The only care required is to 
keep the lower part of the boiler or the larger saucepan 
one-third, or thereabouts, full of water. The food in the 
inner boiler never reaches the boiling-point, therefore a 
much longer time is required for thorough cooking. 

59. The Fireless Cooker. — In Fig. 5, are shown the 
essential parts of a fireless cooker. The food to be cooked 
is first placed in one of the covered metal containers and 
heated over the fire to the boiling-point or cooked for a 
given time as indicated in Table V. The container with 
its contents is then placed in the food chamber, which is 
surrounded by a good insulator to retain the heat and 
utilize it for cooking the food. All commercial fireless 
cookers are equipped with one or more hot plates or radiators 



CEREAL FOODS 



33 



for use in baking and in maintaining a cooking temperature 
for a longer period of time. These plates are first heated 
over the fire and then placed in the cooking chamber under- 
neath or above the food container. The racks upon which 
these plates rest, when the cooker is used for baking pur- 
poses, surround the space occupied by the bread or cake. 




Fig. 5. — A commercial tireless cooker. 



The principle upon which the tireless cooker is based 
may be applied to the keeping of iced or frozen mixtures 
at a low temperature. In this case the heat-insulating 
material surrounding the food chamber prevents the entrance 
of heat from without, and thus maintains the low tempera- 
ture of the food. If the cooker is well insulated, a food 



34 



FOOD 



may be cooking in one compartment while a mixture is 
kept chilled in another compartment of the same cooker. 

80. Selection and Care of Fireless Cookers. — In choos- 
ing a fireless cooker the attention should he directed to the 
durability oi the different parts. The outside case or box 
may be of finished hard wood or metal, preferably oi metal 
because it is easier to keep clean. The lining oi this box 
should be of a durable material and at the same time one 
that will clean easily. The iood chamber should have a 
seamless metal lining to prevent the collection oi germs. 
The iood containers should also be free from seams or 
corners where particles oi iood might find a hiding place. 
Each iood container should be tit ted with a tight cover 
held in place by fasteners. The hot plates are best when 
made oi soapstone, which heats slowly but retains the heat 
for a long time. 'Hie racks should be firm ami strong enough 
to bear the weight of the hot plates 

Various non-metal substances, such as asbestos, excelsior, 
or paper, are used for insulating the different cookers. The 
more perfect the insulation the better the results. A 
vacuum, the insulator employed in the construction oi some 
ot the more expensive cookers, is the most effective means 
oi maintaining a constant temperature. 

61. A Home-made Fireless Cooker. 
— An improvised cooker that will serve 
the designed purpose in a satisfactory 
manner may be constructed at a very 
slight cost. Such a one is shown in 
Fig. 6. A box. lard pail, candy pail, or 
other container having a tightly fitting 
cover: an agate, tin. or aluminum cook- 
ing utensil, also having a close fitting 
cover; and asbestos, hay. cork, paper, 
or excelsior for packing purposes, are 
the essential things. 

To make the cooker select a box or other container of 




Fig. 6. — A home-made 

fireless cooker. 



CEREAL FOODS 35 

suitable size, having the required tight cover, and line 
it throughout with asbestos or paper. Choose an inner 
food container, having a tight cover, of suitable size to allow 
for a three-inch space between it and the outer box or pail, 
and cover with asbestos or stout paper. Pack the bottom 
of the box three or more inches deep with one of the above- 
mentioned insulating materials. Put the covered container 
in place on the bottom pad and pack the space around it 
with more of the insulating material, filling the space within 
three inches of the top of the box. 

Make a pad of muslin filled with the insulating material, 
that will exactly fit and fill the box. Close the fitted cover 
tightly when in use. The insulating packing material 
should be changed frequently to keep the cooker clean and 
free from odors. 

62. The Use of the Fireless Cooker. — Cereals are 
probably the food suited above all others to cooking in the 
fireless cooker. Dried beans, peas and lentils, which have 
a high starch content linked with protein and require long 
cooking, are palatably and economically prepared in the 
fireless cooker. 

Tough cuts of meat, such as are used in preparing soup 
stock and stews, and especially tough fowls are successfully 
cooked in a fireless cooker. Corned beef, hams, tongues, 
and other cured or salted meats shrink less when cooked in 
this way. In fact the cooker is admirably suited to all foods 
requiring a long, slow cooking to make them palatable and 
digestible. 

It is, however, of extreme importance that the foods thus 
cooked be reheated before serving, to remove any gases 
that may have been formed in the slow-cooking process. 

The fireless cooker is recommended highly for use in 
canning small fruits such as cherries and all kinds of 
berries. The bright color is preserved and the appearance 
of the canned goods much improved by this method of 
canning. 



36 



FOOD 



A more extended use of the tireless cooker is recom- 
mended for housekeepers who are obliged to be away 
from home the greater part of the day. The saving in 
both time and fuel will overbalance the initial cost of the 
cookrr. 

TABLE 5.— TABLE FOR COOKING SOME COMMON FOODS 
IX THE FIR EL ESS COOKER. (Mitchell) 



Food. 



Rolled oats 

Corn meal mush. 

Hominy 

Rice 



Amount. 



Soup stork 



Stew- 



Corned beef 



Tongue 



Ham. 



1 c. 
I e. 
1 c. 
lc. 



2 lbs. 

meat 

1 lb. 
meat 

8 lbs. 



Dried beans, peas, or 
lentils 



1 c. 



Amount 
of Water. 


Amount 
of Salt. 


lime on 
St nve in 
Minutes. 


Time in 

('.Hiker in 

Hours. 


2.\ e. 


1 tsp. 


5 


2-12 


\\ e. 


1 tsp. 


5 


5-10 


5 c. 


1| tsp. 


10 


10-12 


2\ c. 


1 tsp. 


Bring to 
boiling 

point. 


1 


2 qtS. 


1 tbs. 


10 
simmer- 
ing 


9-12 


2 1 e. 


1 tsp. 


5 
simmer- 
ing 


I 6 


\\ ater 




Simmer. 


10-12 


to 




30-40 




cover 








Wat ot- 




Simmer 


10-12 


to 




20-30 




cover 








Water 




Simmer 


7-10 


to cover 




20-30 




3 qts. 


To taste 


Boiling- 
point 


8-10 



63. The Thermos Bottle. — The various styles of thermos 
or vacuum bottles now in use depend upon the vacuum 
surrounding the inner Inn lie to act as insulator to maintain 
the temperature of the contents of the bottle. This is an 
application of the same principle as that upon which the 
tireless cooker is based. 



CEREAL FOODS 



37 



In Fig. 7, is shown a thermos bottle closed, and in 
Fig. 8, the construction of the same. The glass vessel 
in Fig. 8 is double walled with a vacuum or insulating 
space between. This glass vessel is set upon a spring in 
the outer container which prevents breakage in handling. 
The material of the outer container may be of tin, agate, 





Courtesy of Landers, Frary & Clark. Courtesy of Landers, Frary & Clark. 

Fig. 7. — Thermos bottle Fig. 8. — Vacuum bottle showing the 

closed. various parts. 

1 Vacuum vessel or glass filler; 

2 The spring steel shock absorber; 

3 Nickel-plated brass case in which glass filler 

is placed, resting on shock absorber; 

4 Nickel-plated shoulder which screws to case, 

holds filler in place; 

5 Gasket which fits to neck of bottle so that no 

liquid can enter case; 
G Cork stopper; 
7 Nickel-plated cap or drinking cup which screws 

to base. 

glass, nickel, silver, etc., depending upon the price and the 
use. 

The convenience, comfort and value of the thermos 
bottle for the school lunch box, the laborer's lunch box, 
picnic parties, and long motor trips cannot be overestimated. 
The range of prices brings some kind of a vacuum bottle 
within the reach of all. 



- 



FOOD 



64. The Pressure Cooker. A steam pressure cooker, 
Fig. 9, made oi solid aluminum and equipped with a steam 

gauge which registers the 

amount oi steam pressure 
used, is to be had in sizes 
suitable for family tise. Cook- 
ing food under steam press- 
ure in the home is a com- 
paratively new idea and one 
that is not yet in general use. 
The points which recommend 
the pressure cooker to the 
housekeeper are the saving 
in time, labor and fuel. 
Foods will cook in one-half 
or less time than in the ordi- 
nary cooking utensils. The 
pressure cooker is highly 
recommended for use in can- 
ning fruits and vegetables 
because it shortens the period 
of sterilization. 

The high price of the 
pressure cooker as now made places it beyond the reach oi 
the average household, although it is claimed that by the 
saving in fuel alone it will pay for itself in a short time. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Cook oatmeal in a tireless cooker. 

Cook rolled oats as an example of coarse cereals. 

Cook farina as an example of tine ee reals. 

boil and steam rice. 

Cook macaroni or spaghetti and serve with white sauce. 




Fig. 9. — Pressure cooker. 

v Farmers' Bulletin 839, l\ S. Dept 

of \ 



CHAITKK VI 
FLOUR MIXTURES 

65. Definition. — Flour mixtures are such mixtures as 
contain flour as the chief ingredient. The essentials in 
flour mixtures are flour, liquid, salt, and some kind of a 
leavening agent. The additions, or non-essentials, are the 
ingredients added to produce .-in agreeable taste, to improve 
the texture, or to introduce a larger proportion of nutrients. 
These are seasoning, shortening, fruit, nuts, and flavorings. 

66. Leavening Agents. — To leaven means u to make 
light." It is necessary to introduce some kind of a leaven- 
ing substance into a (lour mixture to render the mixture 
light, porous, and digestible. A leavening agent as used in 
cookery is a substance which contains a gas, or which has 
the power to produce a gas. The expansion of this gas 
during the process of baking causes the mixture to rise. 

The leavens are air, steam, and gas, produced by the 
action of some kind of a leavening agent incorporated in the 
mixture. 

Air is the simplest of the leavens. By beating, folding 
or rolling a mixture, a suflicient volume of air is often intro- 
duced to cause the mixture to rise satisfactorily. Examples 
of such mixtures are sponge cake, pie crust, and beaten 
biscuit. 

The steam produced from the liquid added to a mixture, 
together with the air incorporated by beating or other 
manipulation, forms the leaven in such mixtures as pop-over 
batter. 

Gas produced by chemical agents introduced into the 
mixture for this purpose, such as baking powder and bicar- 
bonate of soda, is the ordinary leavening agent made use 

39 



10 FOOD 

of when time cannot be allowed for the Longer process of 
fermentation. Examples are quick bread and cake mixtures. 
A second way in which gas for leavening may be pro- 
duced within the mixture is by the use oi yeast. The yeast 
causes alcoholic fermentation of the sugar present, setting 
free the gas, carbon dioxide ^ JCfe). This is the purpose of 
the yeast used in bread making. 

67. Baking Powders. Three different kinds of baking 
powder are in general use. All of thes contain bicarbonate 
of soda as a source oi carbon dioxide (CO2) and require an 
acid reagent capable of liberating this gas. 

Tartrate powders are those in which tartaric acid or 
its salt, cream oi tartar, is employed as this acid reagent. 

Phosphate powders are those made with calcium or 
sodium phosphate as the acid reagent. Crystallized mono- 
sodium phosphate as produced by a recently demonstrated 
chemical process is the phosphate used in the best of this 
class of powder-. 

Alum powders are those in which the ammonium and 
sodium alums are used to release the gas. 

In addition to the above chemicals a small amount, 
about 'JO per cent, oi corn starch or some other substance is 
used to prevent the gathering of moisture which will cause 
deterioration oi the powder. 

There is also in each case a small amount oi residue 
or by-product resulting from the action oi the ingredients 
in the powder. It is a question whether this by-product is, 
in any case, as harmful as was formerly believed. Dis- 
cussions of the relative merits of the different powders 
savor so much oi commercialism that it is hard to find 
unprejudiced information on this point. It is safe to say 
that in the small amounts in which baking powders are 
ordinarily used, the deleterious effects from the by-products 
are negligible. 

68. Analysis of a Cream of Tartar Baking Powder. — 
("ream of tartar baking powder is composed oi two parts 



FLOUR MIXTURES 41 

by weight of acid potassium tartrate, or cream of tartar, 
to one part of bicarbonate of soda, with an addition of 
twenty per cent of starch as a filler. When this compound 
comes in contact with the Liquor in a batter or a dough, 
the two soluble ingredients gradually dissolve. In solution 
a chemical change takes place and new compounds, carbon 
dioxide and sodium-potassium tartrate, commonly known 
as Rochelle Salts, are formed, as is shown by the following 
reactions: 

Acid potassium tartrate. Bicarbonate soda. Sodium-potassium tartrate. 

HKC 4 H 4 Og + NaHC0 3 = NaKC4H 4 OG+C02+H 2 

69. Source of Cream of Tartar.— Cream of tartar, 
together with other salts and some coloring matter, is 
found as a deposit in the form of crystals called argols on 
the sides of wine vats. These argols are melted and filtered 
through bone black to remove the color and other impurities. 
The resulting liquid is then recrystallized as pure cream 
of tartar. These crystals are ground to an extremely fine 
powder before combining with soda to form baking powder. 

70. Source of Bicarbonate of Soda. — Although there 
are other ways of making bicarbonate of soda or baking 
soda, the ammonia or Solvay process, with reactions as shown 
below, is still used. Equation (1) shows the chief reaction, 
while equation (2) shows the recovery of the ammonia, 
which is the key to the commercial success of this process. 

(1) NaCl+NH4+H20+C02-NH 4 Cl+NaHC03. 

(2) 2NH 4 Cl+Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2+H 2 0+2NH4. 

71. Action of Soda with Sour Milk, Molasses and 
Chocolate. — Sour milk contains an acid (lactic) which acts 
chemically upon bicarbonate of soda, setting free the CO2. 
Sour milk and soda may be substituted for sweet milk and 
baking powder in making many of the quick breads and 
cakes. The chief difficulty for the beginner is to determine 
the degree of acidity of the milk and to know how much 



42 FOOD 

soda is required. Ordinarily one-half teaspoonful of soda 
will be sufficient for one cup of sour milk or buttermilk. 

In using molasses the free acid present will be neutralized 
by the addition of one-half teaspoonful of soda for each 
cupful of molasses. 

Soda has the power to darken the chocolate in a mixture 
and to neutralize the free fatty acids present in the chocolate 
and release the gas. 

72. Home-made Baking Powder. — Many housekeepers 
prefer to use cream of tartar and baking soda as a substitute 
for baking powder. When so used, a scant teaspoonful 
of soda mixed with two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar is 
an equivalent for three teaspoonfuls of baking powder. 
It is best to prepare a small quantity of the mixture in the 
proper proportion and have it ready for use as required. 
The materials should be weighed accurately and mixed 
thoroughly by sifting several times after combining. This 
mixture should be kept tightly covered in a glass jar. 

73. Classification of Flour Mixtures. — According to kind: 

. | Hot or quick breads 

^ ' [ Yeast breads 

» Cake { g£ 

f Pies 
(3) Pastry Tarts 

I Patties 

According to thickness: 

(1) Batters j ^ 

(2) Doughs | 8m 

A batter is a mixture of some starchy substance, as 
flour or meal, and a liquid, in proportions to form a com- 
bination that can be beaten with a spoon. 



FLOUR MIXTURES 



43 



j&> \ 



■%»- , *■' 




i. ! I 



■ 





Courtesy oj Royal Baking Powder Co. 

Fig. 10.— Waffles. 




Courtesy of Royal Baking Powder Co. 

Fig. 11.— Muffins. 



44 FOOD 

A dough is a flour mixture stiff enough to be kneaded on 
a board. 

Pour-batter is the thinnest of the Hour mixtures, and 
contains about an equal amount of Hour and liquid. A 
definite proportion cannot always be maintained, since there 
is a variation in the thickening power of the different Hours, 
as well as in the wetting capacity of the different liquid 
ingredients. Griddle cake mixture and pop-over batter 
are excellent examples o( this class of Hour mixtures. 

Drop-batter is a mixture 1 containing approximately two 
parts of Hour to one part of liquid. A good example is 
muffin batter. In this case as in the case of the pour- 
batters, the proportion of the essential ingredients will 
depend upon the kind of Hour used and upon the properties 
of the other Ingredients. 

Soft-dough contains from two and one-half to three 
parts oi flour to one part oi liquid. Biscuit dough is typical 
of this class. 

Stiff-dough has the proportion of Hour and liquid of 
four to one. Pie crust is the best example of this class of 
doughs. 

74. Hot or Quick Breads. — As the name indicates, hot 
or quick breads are prepared in a much shorter time than 
that necessarily taken for yeast breads which are discussed 
in the succeeding chapter. Some chemical means of pro- 
ducing CO2 is depended upon to give the necessary lightness 
to this class of breads. 

75. Cakes. — The cake mixtures are divided into two 
classes, sponge and butter. The first class comprises all 
varieties of cake batter not containing shortening of any 
kind and depending upon air for leavening. The second 
class includes all forms of cake batter which contain butter 
or other fats and depend upon the gas released from soda, 
as in baking powder, or the use of baking soda and some 
acid substance, for leavening. 

76. Sponge Cake. — This is the simplest of the cake 



FLOUR MIXTURES 



45 




Courtesy oj Royal Baking Powder Co. 

Fig. 12. — Cinnamon Buns. 




Courtesy of Royal Baking Powder Co. 

Fig. 13.— Corn Cake. 



- 



?•:•:! 



------- 

- .- : to make success 

nded upon f«: g, 

j ts be the 

izirr.= - :-■=: ::::.* : e of 

gg wiD more air thai I 

gg ai - 5 a last step. 1 

folded : 

: - - - • -. 

i: c the wall 




- 

- - - 

or cream of - j 

- ring the cor. - - - 

77. Battel Cake. — 1 r 

kind j - 

- 

II Ingredients md Tbek Effect m Khe Mixture. * — For 



FLOUR MIXTURES 47 

satisfactory results in cake making, it is most essential 
that all the ingredients should be of the best quality in 
respect to flavor and freshness. 

Flour. — A good, standard grade of flour should be used. 
This should be sifted twice before measuring. There is 
less variation in the weight of different flours after they 
are sifted twice, and more uniform results may be obtained 
through observing this precaution. Flour is sifted to 
remove foreign substances, to take out lumps, and to incor- 
porate air. The amount of air introduced is greatly increased 
by a second sifting. Many cake rules call for pastry flour 
but when this is not obtainable, bread flour may be sub- 
stituted, using two tablespoonfuls less for each cupful of 
flour than the rule specifies. It has been demonstrated 
that two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch added to each cup 
of bread flour makes an excellent substitute for pastry 
flour. 

Too much flour in a cake will cause it to become tough 
and bread-like. On the other hand, if not enough flour 
is used, the cake will fall because there is not enough gluten 
in the mixture to stiffen on baking and hold the cake up. 
The starch in the flour binds the other ingredients together 
and gives body to the cake. 

Sugar. — A fine-grained, granulated sugar should be 
sought for cake making, since it dissolves more readily than 
the coarse grained and makes a cake of finer texture. When 
powdered or brown sugar is used in place of granulated, it 
is advisable to make the substitution by weight rather 
than by measure, as from one and a quater to one and a half 
cupfuls are required to furnish an equivalent sweetening 
to one cupful of granulated sugar. Since sugar dissolves 
and increases the moisture in a cake, too much tends to 
make the cake rise high in the oven and then fall before 
the baking process is finished. In this case the crumb 
will be sticky and the crust gummy. Too little rugar 
produces a coarse-grained cake. 



POOD 

F s Butter used for cake n 
should not have an objection s both oi 

the» cted in I Buttei 

. -. of en rich, tender, and oi fine 

■ . I 
■ st results 

Ch subs 

in cake ma] 

ised \ 
Is is i a subs itedforbu 

ss rnois 
- 

f power. S 
is equivalent tool bu or. 

\ s an excess of be 

fine . iking 

tin, while one a si 

ur and gg dng ] 

I Iggs impart lig aess and si bness ' \ 
ike and - s together 

also give g 

e up 
:' whi< ' - - 
h will i 
Ik 
- 3 strated - 

will 
- • 
Good l-storag ggs £gs presei 

tho >us s, sed ins 

ggs s pi 
tt is ] - to mak - i 

rant of i sing 



FLOUR MIXTURES 49 

quantity of baking powder. An example is the one-egg 
or standard cake, which is good when eaten soon after 
making, bul winch dries ou1 quickly. 

Liquids.- Although sweel milk is tin* liquid generally 
called for in cake recipes, other liquids are often Used. 
Water, which toughens the cake slightly, is probably the 
chief substitute for sweel milk. 

Sour Milk. When sour milk or buttermilk is used as 
the liquid in a cake recipe, bicarbonate of soda (one-half 
teaspoonul for each cupful o\' milk) is ordinarily required 
to neutralize the acid before adding baking powder. 

Sour cream takes the place of both I'm and liquid in a 
recipe. One cupful of sour cream is regarded as equivalenl 
to one-third to one-half cupful of shortening and two-thirds 
to one-half cupful of sour milk. 

Fruits. — Fruits are added to cake to improve the flavor, 
to add weighl and food value and to prevenl its drying out 
quickly. Certain dried or candied fruits such as currants, 
raisins, citron, cherries, figs, and dates are used in cake 
making. When adding dried fruits, the batter should be 
slightly stiffer than for plain cake, in order to hold the fruit 
in place. Also, more shortening should he added to counter- 
act the o(\cc\ of the extra flour used. Haw fruits, such as 
bine berries and cherries, require a smaller amount of extra 
flour. Cooked fruits apple sauce, blackberry, and other 
jams require very little additional flour. Dried or raw 
fruit should be mixed with a small amount of flour and 
added to the mixture just before baking. 

Nuis.~— Nuts, which are lighter than fruit, do not need 
additional flour to keep them from settling to the bottom of 
the tin. They add such richness to a cake mixture that one 
cup of nuts is equivalent to one tablespoonful of fat. 

Chocolate and Cocoa. — Cocoa may be used in any recipe 
calling for chocolate by allowing two tablespoons of cocoa to 
an ounce, or a square, of chocolate. The starch found in 
the chocolate or cocoa thickens the batter, which accounts 



30 FOOD 

for the fact that less flour or more liquid is called for when 
chocolate or cocoa is used. The fat of the chocolate or 
cocoa adds richness to the cake and may be taken into 
consideration in the addition of other fats. 

Spices and Flavoring Extracts. — Spice may be added to 
a cake mixture by sifting with the dry ingredients or by 
first scalding with about twice as much boiling water as 
spice, and adding to the liquid ingredients. 'Hie latter 
method is highly recommended because it improves the 
flavor o( the spice and imparts a richness to the cake. 

Strong vanilla, lemon, almond, or other extracts are not 
needed in a cake made o( good materials, and should be 
used only in quantities sufficient to impart a delicate flavor 
rather than as a disguise to the objectionable flavor and 
odor of poor materials. 

79. Baking Cake. — Experience is the only guide to 
successful baking unless a reliable oven thermometer is used. 
More cakes have been spoiled in the baking than by faulty 
recipes or careless mixing. A loaf cake should he baked on 
the bottom shelf oi the oven in order to have the greater 
heat underneath. Cookies and small cakes are baked more 
evenly on the upper shelf. 

In filling the pan bring the batter tip against the sides 
so that the center will not be higher than the sides, ami 
in this way bring a larger proportion oi the batter in con- 
tact with the heat at the -ides of the pan, This makes the 
cake rise evenly. The pan should not be more than two- 
thirds full oi batter, or the cake will rise over the sides of the 
pan and fall later. 

An over-hot oven does not allow the cake to rise evenly 
and an oven too cool allows the mixture to become over- 
light, thus spoiling the texture oi the cake. Since the range 
of oven temperature runs from 250° V. cool' to 500° F. (very 
hot), some reliable means is necessary to accurately measure 
the heat oi the oven. The methods oi testing oven tem- 
peratures most commonly employed when a thermometer 



FLOUR MIXTURES 



51 



is not used are: Testing with the hand, noting how quickly 
a piece of paper browns in the oven, and allowing a stated 
time after the gas lias been turned on before pulling in the 
cake. Any one of these may be adequate in the hands of 
.•in expert, bu1 for the inexperienced the only ^w^ method 
is the use of an oven I hermometer. 

A dish of cold water placed on the upper grate will lower 
the temperature of the oven. Leaving the door ajar is safe 
only after the cake is partly baked. 



TABLE VI.— OVEN TEMPERATURES 
(From Teachers' College Bulletin No. 8) 



Cool. 


Moderate. 


Hot. 


Very Hot. 


250-350° F. 


350-400° F. 


100-450° F. 


450-500° F. 


Custards 


( ringer bread 


Rolls 


Pastry 


Meringues 


Butter cakes 


Pop-overs 




Sponge cake 


( !ookies 


Biscuits 






Bread 


Muffins 





80. Stages in Baking a Cake. — The time required for 
baking a cake may be divided into four periods. First, the 
cake rises to its full capacity. Second, a crust is formed on 
top which is brown in spots. Third, the cake is an even 
golden brown. Fourth, it shrinks from the sides of the tin, 
becomes elastic to the touch and a broom splint inserted 
will come out clean. 

81. Care After Baking. — After a cake has stood in the 
tin long enough to become moist around the sides, it should 
be removed from the tin and inverted on a rack to cool. 
This usually takes about three minutes. Cakes to be iced 
need to be partly cooled before the icing is put on or the 
heat of the cake will cause the icing to run. 

82. How to Know a Good Cake.— A properly made cake 
should be of uniform thickness, fine grained, and of delicate 
texture. Cake that rises in the middle or at the sides of the 



52 FOOD 

tin, either has too much flour in it or has been improperly 
baked. A coarse grain and texture indicate careless measur- 
ing or insufficient mixing. A good cake is light, tender, 
and moist, easily broken, but not crumbly. The crust 
should be thin, tender, and evenly browned. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Make pop-overs, griddle cakes, waffles, fritters, muffins, and tea 

biscuit. 

Make sponge and butter cakes, cookies, and gingerbread. 



CHAPTER VII 
FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 

(Continued) 



83. Varieties of Wheat.- — Spring wheat is grown in the 
Northwestern States and Canada. It is sown in the spring 
and grows and matures during the short, hot, summer 
months and is harvested in the early fall. Spring wheat, 
because it is rich in the right kind of proteins, is considered 
best for bread flour. 

Spring wheat flour is known by its creamy white color, 
its gritty feeling when rubbed between the thumb and 
finger, and its power to absorb water. 

Winter wheat, which is sown in the 
fall, reaches maturity in the early sum- 
mer. The kernels of winter wheat are 
softer and contain more starch than 
those of spring wheat, and for tkis 
reason winter wheat is used for making 
pastry flour. This flour is whiter in 
color than bread flour. It has a smooth, 
starchy feeling and holds its shape when 
squeezed in the hand. 

84. Structure and Composition of a 
Wheat Kernel.- — The structure of a 
wheat kernel is shown in Fig. 15. The 
principal parts are: 

(a) The endosperm, which forms the 
mass of the kernel and is made up of 
starch and protein cells. 

(b) The aleurone cells, or layer of large square cells sur- 

53 




Fig. 15. — Longitudinal 
section of a grain of 
wheat. 

a, endosperm; 

b, aleurone cells; 

c, bran coats; 

d, germ. 



54 FOOD 

rounding the endosperm. These are rich in phosphorus and 
gluten. 

(c) The bran coats, which comprise several layers outside 
of the aleurone cells. These are rich in mineral matter. 
Here is also found more cellulose than in other parts of the 
grain. 

(d) The germ, or embryo, located at one end of the kernel, 
is the young plant which grows on germination. It is rich 
in protein, fat and mineral matter. 

85. The Proteins of Wheat. — The two most important 
proteins found in wheat arc glutenin and gliadin. These 
are united chemically, when flour is kneaded with a liquid, 
and form gluten. 

86. The Milling of Flour. — The history of the develop- 
ment of the milling process is an interesting topic for home 
reading. The roller process now in use yields about 75 per 
cent of the cleaned wheat as white flour. The remainder, 
called shorts and bran, is used for feeding cattle. 

The high grade or standard flours are those made from 
wheat yielding not only a high percentage of gluten but a 
gluten that is composed of the proper proportions of gliadin 
and glutenin. It is the proportion in which these important 
proteins occur, quite as much as the total gluten content 
of the flour, which makes possible a large, light, and porous 
loaf of bread. 

Whole wheat flour is wheat meal from which the coarsest 
of the bran has been removed. It contains the germ and a 
portion of the aleurone layer. Graham flour is the unbolted 
wheat meal. Gluten flour is the spring wheat flour after a 
good part of the starch has been removed. 

87. Yeast Bread. — Some form of leavened bread is 
universally depended upon as a staple food. It is the most 
wholesome and, all things considered, the most economical 
of foods. Yeast bread is made from the staple grains, 
wheat and rye, because they have the properties which are 
needed to form a light and porous loaf. Other grains are 



FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 55 

often combined with these to form different varieties of 
bread. 

88. Quick Process Bread. — Bread made with a large 
amount of yeast, which hastens the rising and shortens the 
time required, is called quick process bread. The amount of 
yeast used regulates the time of fermentation but does not 
affect the quality or flavor of the bread. A yeasty odor is 
due to insufficient baking or over-fermentation rather than 
to an over amount of yeast. 

Two cakes of compressed yeast to one cup of liquid is 
not too much for two or three hour bread. The quick 
process plan of bread making is a decided improvement 
upon the old, slow method where the dough was liable to 
become sour. 

89. Mixing and Kneading. — The ingredients for bread 
should be mixed thoroughly and only enough flour should 
be used to make the dough stay up. The softer the dough, 
the better. 

(1) Place the salt, sugar and fat in the mixing bowl 
and pour over them the scalded milk or other liquid. When 
this mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast rubbed to a paste 
in lukewarm water and mix thoroughly. Add flour enough 
to form a drop batter, and beat this batter until bubbles 
of air begin to form in the mass. Then add gradually the 
remainder of the flour or enough to make a dough that 
will form a ball around the mixing spoon and leave the 
sides of the bowl free from flour. 

(2) After the dough has been mixed place it on a floured 
kneading board and knead, handling lightly, until the 
dough is smooth and velvety and does not stick to the hands 
or board. 

(3) Put the dough aside in a warm place to rise. The 
fermentation period is the most important of all. Bread 
should not be allowed to rise longer than is required for it 
to double in bulk. If fermentation is allowed to continue 
too long, the dough is liable to become sour. 



56 



FOOD 



(4) When the dough has doubled in bulk, the gas bub- 
bles may be removed by lightly punching the mass down 






■ 



Fig. 16. — Kneading bread. 

in the bowl; after which, let the dough rise again until 
about two-thirds its former bulk. 

(5) Mould the dough into loaves by stretching, folding. 



FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 57 

and shaping a portion to fit the baking tin. Push down the 
corners and sides to make an even loaf and let the loaf rise 
again. Moisten the loaf on top to prevent a hard crust 
from forming during the rising process. 

90. Baking. — Bread is ready for the oven when the loaf 
has settled in the corners and the dough has very nearly 
doubled in bulk. The temperature of the oven should be 
about 400° F. The loaf should not begin to brown until 
it has been in the oven ten minutes. The pan should be 
turned around after three minutes baking to keep the loaf 
even. Sixty minutes is required for baking the average 
size loaf. 

Rare or slack baked bread resulting from under bak- 
ing is the worst and most frequent fault to be guarded 
against. 

91. Effect of Ingredients on the Loaf. — Too much flour 
will cause a loaf to split in the middle in baking. Three 
cupfuls of flour to one cupful of liquid is a good proportion. 
A green dough (mixture not light enough when put in the 
oven) will have the same effect as too much flour. Sugar 
hurries along the action of the yeast by supplying quickly 
the material needed to produce carbon dioxide (CO2). 

An excess of salt retards the fermentation process. 
One teaspoonful of salt is sufficient for one loaf. Fat in 
large amounts has the same effect upon the mixture as 
salt. Not over one tablespoonful to a loaf should be 
allowed. Fat is not a necessary ingredient in well-made 
bread. 

92. Rolls. — The various kinds of bread dough intended 
for rolls require a little different treatment after the first 
rising. The punching down to take out the gas should be 
omitted. Rolls should be allowed to rise until at least 
double the original bulk before baking. Rolls are baked in 
eighteen to twenty minutes and require a hotter oven than 
a loaf of bread will stand. 



58 



FOOD 




Courtis;/ of Landers, Frary & Clark 

Fig. 17. — Bread mixer. 



93. Bread Mixers. — A good mixer brings about the 

same results as hand kneading, if the correct proportion 

of flour and liquid is used 
and the mixer is turned for 
eight minutes. The mixer 
undoubtedly saves time and 
strength in making large 
quantities of bread, but for 
less than three loaves the 
hand method is easier. 

94. Yeast. — Yeast is a 
tiny, single-celled plant. 
The individual plants are 
round or oval in shape as 
in Fig. 18, and consist of a 
thin cell wall of cellulose 
filled with protoplasm. The 

dark spot or point in the cell is called the nucleus. 
Under normal conditions the yeast plant develops or 

grows rapidly by the process 

known as budding, which is 

one of the simplest forms of 

cell reproduction. 

95. Sources of Yeast. — 
Wild yeasts are abundant on 
the skins of fruits and vege- 
tables and in the atmosphere. 

Cultivated yeast^or distillers' 
yeast, intended for baking purposes, is either grown in quan- 
tity for use or is a by-product of the manufacture of malt 
liquors. In Fig. 19 is represented the entire process of making 
compressed yeast from the scouring of the grains to the 
shipping of the finished product. 

96. Commercial Yeast. — The usual forms in which yeast 
appears in the market are compressed yeast, dry yeast, and 
liquid yeast. 




Fig. 18.— Yeast cells. 



FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND 1WSTKY 



59 



MASH TUB 



_£I 



SOURING 
TANK. 



FILTER TUJ 




SHIPPING 
BOXES 





SMALL 

LACTIC ACID 

MAGH 



FILTER 
PRESS 



MIXING MACHINE 

CARS TO AGENCIES 



REFRIGERATOR 



Courtesy of Fleischmann Co. 

Fig. 19. — Manufacture of yeast. 



60 FOOD 

Compressed yeast is to be preferred when it can be 
obtained. It has the advantage of providing a large amount 
of yeast in small bulk, but it will not keep for any length of 
time and should be fresh when used. 

In dry yeast the yeast cells have been mixed with tapioca 
or other flour and dried before being put up in packages. 
Dry yeast requires a longer time to do its work and is not 
as effective as other forms, since many of the plants are 
killed by the drying process. 

Liquid yeast may be made at home or bought at most 
bakeries. Liquid yeast is made by mixing yeast with a 
liquid which contains flour and sugar or other food for the 
yeast plant, and allowing it to stand in a warm place until 
the mixture is filled with yeast plants as shown by the 
bubbles of gas. 

Compressed yeast cakes are more uniform in strength 
and therefore more reliable for general use than other forms 
of commercial yeast. 

97. Functions of Yeast in Bread Making. — Since yeast 
plants develop best at a temperature between 75° and 90° F., 
the materials for bread dough should be lukewarm. When 
the materials have been thoroughly mixed, the mass should 
be kneaded until it will not stick to the hands or the board 
and is elastic to the touch. It should then be set aside to 
allow time for the growth of the yeast plants. Under 
proper conditions, that is, the presence of warmth, moisture, 
and food, the yeast plant will multiply rapidly. 

Flour contains a small amount of sugar and also a ferment 
which is capable of changing starch into sugar. By the 
action of the yeast this sugar is broken down to form carbon 
dioxide (CO2) and alcohol. The bubbles of gas thus 
formed are entangled in the dough, causing it to be 
spongy and light. In the oven these bubbles of gas expand 
and increase the size of the loaf. The heat of the oven 
also kills the yeast plant and drives the alcohol off as a 
vapor. 



FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 61 

98. Digestibility of Bread. — The nutrients in yeast 
bread like those of other cereal products are digested and 
absorbed with relative ease and thoroughness. A light, 
thoroughly baked crumb is digested with less difficulty 
than heavy or rare baked bread. The latter tends to form 
a waxy mass in the stomach, which resists the action of the 
digestive fluids. The crust is partly dextrinized and is 
crisp and dry. In this state the change from dextrin to 
maltose is easily made by the digestive fluids. 

Hot breads are less easily digested than yeast breads 



* JL- 




Fig. 20. — Oatmeal bread, Rye bread, and Corn bread. 

because the warm crumb tends to form a waxy mass in the 
stomach. 

99. How to Know Good Bread. — The loaf should be of 
medium size. (A large loaf is liable to be underdone in the 
center). It should be regular in shape, rounded on top 
and even on the sides, with a crisp, golden-brown crust. 

The texture of the crumb should be fine and even. (By 
texture is meant the size and uniformity of the holes.) 
Large holes near the top of the loaf indicate that the dough 
was kept too warm during the fermentation process. 

The color of the crumb should be white or creamy. A 



62 FOOD 

gray color is due to over fermentation or to a cheap grade 
of flour. 

The odor should be " wheaty." A yeasty odor suggests 
lack of sufficient baking. Underdone or slightly sour bread 
is unwholesome. 

100. Pastry. — Pie crust, tarts, and patties belong to the 
stiff dough mixtures and contain a large proportion of 
shortening or from one-third to one-half as much as of 
flour. 

Pastry should be light, flaky, and tender. Since pastry 
depends upon the air incorporated into the mixture for 
lightness, this property is increased by skillful handling 
and by keeping the ingredients at a proper temperature. 
The colder the ingredients the greater the expansion in 
baking, hence the greater the degree of lightness. 

Pastry is made flaky by having the fat in rather large 
flakes in the flour before adding the liquid, also by spreading 
more fat on each time the folding and rolling process takes 
place. Tenderness of pastry is determined by the amount 
of fat used and by adding the least possible amount of mois- 
ture to make a dough. The various fats such as butter, 
oleomargarine, lard, lard substitutes, nut butters, and beef 
drippings, may be used alone or in combination for this 
purpose. 

101. Baking Pastry. — Pies should be baked in an earthen- 
ware, granite or aluminum pan, or better still, in a Pyrex 
plate. The upper crust, when used, should have several 
openings to permit the escape of the steam generated in 
baking. In the case of a pie with only a lower crust it is 
advisable to bake the crust on the outside of the inverted 
pan. Prick the crust in several places with a fork before 
baking, to allow the confined air to escape before the heat 
expands it and spoils the shape of the crust. 

The temperature of the oven for all kinds of pastry 
should be what is termed very hot, or from 450° F. to 500° F., 
until the crust begins to brown. Then the temperature 



FLOUR MIXTURES, BREAD AND PASTRY 63 

should be reduced to allow for the thorough cooking of the 
filling. 

102. Digestibility of Pastry. — The combination of so 
much fat as is commonly used in pastry with flour forms 
a coating of fat over the starch, which retards the action of 
the digestive juices. Soggy pastry is not so easily digested 
as the crisp and flaky kind; therefore, for one-crust pies, 
the crust may be baked before the filling is added to prevent 
the crust from soaking up moisture and becoming soggy. 

The deep fruit pie with an upper crust only is most 
desirable, since in this way the crust may be crisp and flaky. 
This pastry also affords a pleasing way of serving cooked 
fruits. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter, 
make: 

Bread,, short and long process. 

Rolls, plain and fancy. 

Nut breads, raisin breads. 

Whole wheat bread, corn bread, coffee cake. 

Dutch apple cake. 

Pie crust, tarts, patties. 

One-crust pic, two-crust pie. 



CHAPTER VITI 
VEGETABLES 

103. Definition. — In the strictest sense of the word cereals 
and fruits may be termed vegetables, but what is commonly 
known as vegetables are the plant products that have a, 
very high water content. Those containing 70 per cent or 
more of water are spoken of as succulent. 

104. Classification. -Vegetables may he classified in 
different ways: 

(1) As to the part of the plant used: ^cv<\^\ roots; tubers; 

bulbsj stems; leaves; Mowers; fruil. 

{2) As to composition: (a) those containing much water; 
(b) those containing much starch; (c) those containing 
much protein. 

(3) As to flavor: (a) mild in flavor; (6) strong in flavor. 

105. Composition. — The foodstuff other than water that 
appears in greatest abundance in vegetables is carbohydrate, 
either in the form i){ starch or sugar. Protein is present 
in varying amounts in the form o\' globulin and vegetable 
casein, the latter sometimes called legumin. Comparing the 
protein of vegetables with that of animals, the following 
distinctions may he made: 

(1) Vegetable protein is deficient in nucleo protein, while 
animal protean is rich in this material. 

(2) Globulin, the form in which the protein occurs in 
vegetables, contains less sulphur than the animal albumin, 
and is insoluble in pure water though soluble in a salt solu- 
tion. 

(3) Vegetable protein yields, on decomposition, a much 
higher percentage of glutamic acid than animal protein. 

64 



VEGETABLES 65 

Extractives are present in vegetables and belong to the 
class of chemical substances known as amines. 

Mineral Matter, the presence of which adds so much to 
the nutritive value of many vegetables, occurs largely in 
the form of potash and phosphorus; but as these salts do 
not appear as chlorides, common salt is a welcome addition 
to a vegetable diet. Small amounts of citrates, phosphates, 
and silicates of lime are also found, and sulphur occurs in 
such vegetables as onions, cabbage, and the legumes. 

Fat occurs in vegetables only in minute quantities and 
in the form of olein. 

106. Food Value.- With the exception of a few of the 
starchy vegetables and the legumes, plant substances are 
not considered very nutritious, but they are necessary as 
body regulators and to give flavor, bulk and variety to the 
diet. They yield a certain amount of energy in the body 
at comparatively low cost in normal times. 

107. Digestion of Vegetables. — Owing to the large 
amount of cellulose present in vegetables, they are more 
difficult of digestion than animal food, and experiments 
have shown that their completeness of digestion is very 
much less than that of animal foods. The formation of 
undesirable gases from the sulphur present in strong flavored 
vegetables causes the flatulence experienced by many peo- 
ple after a too liberal diet of these varieties. 

108. The Selection of Vegetables. — In selecting vege- 
tables buy those that are in season as they are then much 
better flavored and less expensive. 

Buy by weight rather than by measure; choose firm, 
crisp vegetables, heavy for their size and of medium size 
only, as large ones are apt to be old and fibrous. See that 
the skin is unbroken. Earth adhering to vegetables is 
evidence that they have not been freshened by soaking in 
water. 

109. Cooking Vegetables. — The changes that are to be 
effected by cooking are as follows: 



66 FOOD 

(1) The cellular tissue is to be loosened and softened. 

(2) The starch granules must absorb water and swell. 

(3) Pleasant flavors are to be developed and unpleasant 
ones dissipated. 

The method of cooking should be such as to lessen the 
waste as much as possible. Cooking in water, the way most. 
commonly employed, effects a withdrawal of nutrients, 
especially the mineral matter —a loss which occurs to a 
much less extent in steaming, and not at all in baking. 
Keeping vegetables whole while boiling minimizes the waste. 

All green vegetables, roots, and tubers should be crisp 
and firm before cooking. If they are not they should be 
allowed to stand in very cold water about one lour. All 
vegetables should be most carefully cleaned before cooking. 
'1 hose in heads, such as cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and cauli- 
flower, should be placed head down in cold, salted water 
to which a little vinegar has been added. This will draw 
out any animal life that may l>e presenl in them. 

All vegetables except the legumes are host cooked by 
put tint;' into rapidly boiling water and keeping them at 
this temperature until the vegetables are tender. The 
cover o( the saucepan should ho partly off to allow for ven- 
tilation and the evaporation of the disagreeable volatile 
gases developed by the heat. Over-cooking is to be avoided, 
as it destroys the chlorophyl and other coloring matter 
and injures the substances which give t ho pleasant flavors. 

The practice of adding bicarbonate of soda to the 
water in which vegetables are to be cooked is no longer 
advised. It has been found by experiment that cooking 
in an alkaline solution dissolves some of the vitamines, 
thereby decreasing the nutritive value of the vegetables. 

110. Blanching Vegetables. — Blanching is supposed to 
improve the flavor by removing the strong, acrid taste of 
some vegetables, to harden the tissue, and to set the color. 
This is done by dipping the vegetables, which have been 
thoroughly cleaned and placed either in cheese-cloth or in a 



VEGETABLES 



67 



wire basket, into rapidly boiling water, covering and keep- 
ing at this poinl from five to ten minutes. Drain, and if 
the vegetables are no1 to be used for canning (in which case 
they are plunged immediately into cold water), pu1 them 
into a saucepan with as little water as possible, partly cover 
and allow to cook gently until tender, when most, of the 
water should have evaporated. Salt; pepper, and butter 
should be added before serving. 

111. Preserving Vegetables. — Vegetables arc preserved 
in a variety of ways, although canning and drying are 
perhaps the most popular. These processes will he treated 
at greater length in a separate chapter. Simply packing 
fresh vegetables between 
layers of salt will preserve 
them. Salt with the addi- 
tion of vinegar is used in 
pickling. ( ominercial cold 
storage has done much to 
conserve the surplus in 
vegetables as in other foods, 
and is of course effective; in 
checking bacterial growth. 
Preserving vegetables by 
the use of such preserva- 
tives as borates, benzoates, 
etc., is to be condemned. 
The so-called winter vege- 
tables such as turnips, cab- 
bage, onions, carrots, par- 
snips and beets may be kept 
in good condition by being- 
buried or stored in a cool 
place. 

112. Legumes. The le- 
gumes belong to the pulse 
family. They are the fruit of the plant and are usually in 




Fig. 21.— T.entik 
(Farmer's Bulletin 121.) 



68 



FOOD 



the shape of a pod. There are many kinds, but those used as 
vegetables are peas, beans, and lentils. The unripe peas 
and beans and the edible pods of the latter contain much 
water and are classed as succulent vegetables. While they 
are not as rich in nutrients as, the matured ones, they are 




Fig. 22. — Peanut vine showing nodules on the roots. 
(Bulletin 121.) 



more delicate in flavor and more easily digested. The 
lentil is never eaten except when fully ripe. 

113. Food Value of Legumes. — The legumes, except in 
war times, are a particularly cheap source of protein or 
nitrogen to the body. They are the only plants that can 
make use of the nitrogen of the air to build their own tissue, 
and for this purpose their roots are furnished with nodules 
thickly populated by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The dried 



VEGETABLES 69 

legumes are fully matured and, while deficient in flavor they 
contain a high percentage of protein. In cases where they 
can be digested without too much difficulty the legumes may 
be used as a substitute for the more expensive animal foods. 

114. Cooking Legumes. — The green legumes are cooked 
in the same way as other fresh vegetables; but the way 
in which the dried ones are cooked greatly influences their 
digestibility. Dried legumes should be cleaned, then soaked 
over night in cold water, and in the morning cooked in this 
same water until tender. Making the legumes into a puree 
renders them more available as a source of nourishment. 
It separates the more digestible pulp from the skin. The 
digestibility of legumes is increased if they are eaten in 
combination with other food rather than alone. 

115. Soy Beans. — The soy bean, Fig. 23, which is some- 
times spoken of as the Togo bean, has been used as food in 
China and Japan since ancient times; but in this country 
its use as such is just beginning. 

Up to the present time it has served only as a fertilizer, 
as food for hogs, or as a source of oil to be used as a sub- 
stitute for more expensive oils. 

Composition. — Like most legumes the soy bean is very 
rich in protein. Compared with the cereals it contains 
three times as much protein as wheat or rye flour, and five 
times as much as corn flour. The amount of fat present 
in the soy bean is ten times as much as is present in any 
cereal. It is deficient in carbohydrates. 

Appearance.— \\\ appearance the soy bean is round and 
yellow, somewhat similar to the garden pea. There are 
two hundred varieties, but it is the yellow-seeded variety 
which is best for food. 

Cooking. — The soy bean may be cooked in a variety of 
ways, and may be combined to advantage with many other 
foods such as rice, cheese, tomatoes, and corn. It may be 
soaked over night and baked the same as the navy bean, 
but without the addition of fat of any kind. 



food 



i 




3 - lies raps 



\ EGETABLES 71 

116. Tubers. A tuber is a short, fleshy, underground 
stem. The common edible tubers include white potatoes 
Jerusalem artichokes, and sweet potatoes, 

While white potatoes are rich in starch and are. there- 
fere, a source 1 oi energy to the body, they are chiefly valuable 
for their antiscorbutic properties, due to the nature of the 
mineral matter present. Very new ami very old potatoes 
contain less starch ami more soluble sugar, which accounts 
for their lack of mealiness when cooked. After potatoes 
begin to sprout, the starch content is changed to glucose 
by a ferment present in them. 

Jersualem artichokes contain no starch, ami so resemble 
the turnip rather than the potato. They do contain a small 
amount of sugar and another form o( carbohydrate known 
as inulin. 

Sweet potatoes are about the same in composition as the 
white, containing a little more sugar and being somewhat 
laxative. 

117. The Dasheen. This comparatively little known 
vegetable is of the starchy variety and rather closely resem- 
bles the potato (Fig, 24), though it is more delicate in 
flavor and contains less water. After cooking, the flesh 
becomes gray or violet. 

Any method -M cooking which may be applied to the 
potato may likewise be applied to the dasheen. If scraped 
before cooking, it should be handled under water to which 
sal-soda has been added (one teaspoon to one quart of 
water). 'This is done to prevent the juice from the outer 
layer from exerting an irritating effect upon the hands. 

118. Roots. — The roots most commonly used as foods 
are beets, radishes, turnips, carrots, salsify, parsnips and 
celeriac. 

Beets, carrots and turnips, when used as summer vege- 
tables, are the quickly grown variety and are gathered 
while small. When intended for winter use. they must be 
allowed to mature or they cannot be successfully stored. 



72 



FOOD 



Celeriac is a variety of the familiar celery but is culti- 
vated for its turnip-like root, rather than for its stalk. 

119. Bulbs. — The underground leaf-buds of certain 
plants are known as bulbs. Onions are the most generally 
used of this type, but others used more sparingly and for 
flavor only, are garlic, leek, shallot and chives. 

120. Leaves, Stems, and Shoots.- -The edible portions of 
cabbage, lettuce, celery, asparagus, and spinach are the 




Fig. 24. — The Dasheen. 
(Journal of Home Economics.) 

leaves, stems or shoots of the plants. While the food value 
of these vegetables is not high, they are refreshing and a 
pleasant source of mineral matter. Contrary to custom, 
leaf vegetables should be cooked in as little water as pos- 
sible and the water saved as it has been found to contain 
valuable vit amines. 

121. Fruit. — The seed-bearing part of a plant is called 
the fruit. The common vegetables used as foods, which are 
known to the botanist as the fruits of the plants, are toma- 



VEGETABLES 



73 




74 FOOD 

toes, okra, squash, pumpkin, cucumber, egg plant and 
peppers. 

122. Flower Buds. — Among the food plants of which 
the parts eaten arc the flower buds may be mentioned: 
cauliflower, broccoli and French artichokes. 

Broccoli is a variety of cabbage. It resembles the cauli- 
flower but has a taller stem. 

French artichokes arc large flower buds; the buds must 
be used before they are open. The edible parts are the 
thickened portion at the base of the scales and the part to 
which the leaf-like scales arc 1 attached. 

Brussels sprouts arc a variety of cabbage having about the 
same composition as the cabbage. 

Kohl-rabi is very similar to the turnip in appearance 
and flavor. 

Okra is a plant much cultivated in the South for its 
young, mucilagenous pods. It has very little food value 
and is generally used for flavoring soups. In localities 
when 4 it is grown the very young seeds are sometimes cooked 
in the same way as green peas. The tender pods may be 
boiled and served as salad. 

123. Green Vegetables. — The so-called green vegetables, 
or salad plants, art 4 those usually eaten without cooking. 
Lettuce is the best example and most widely used of these, 
but endive, cress, mint, green peppers, celery, cucumbers. 
and escarole are much used. 

Green vegetables arc composed largely of water (90 per 
cent or more) and cellulose 4 . Their most valuable 4 con- 
stituent, infinitesimal though it maybe in amount, is mineral 
matter. This exists largely in the form of potassium salts, 
though small amounts of iron are also present and certain 
substances which impart an agreeable flavor. 

124. Digestion and Food Value of Green Vegetables.— 
Green vegetables are not easy of digestion except when 
young. With age the amount of cellulose increases, making 
them tough and stringy. Owing to the amount of water 



VEGETABLES 



75 




Fig. 26. — Brussels sprouts. 
(From Yeaw's Market Gardening) 



76 FOOD 

they contain, green vegetables must be eaten while fresh, 
as they wilt easily, due to the evaporation of some of this 
water. 

None of these salad plants are of high nutritive value, 
but they are cooling, antiscorbutic, and gently laxative. 
Because of their low nutritive value they may be eaten in 
addition to the protein and fuel foods without unduly 
increasing the total amount of food consumed. This prop- 
erty makes them very useful in the limited diet of those 
who are reducing. 

Whether green vegetables are to be cooked or not, 
they must be very carefully cleaned by soaking in very 
cold, salted water and removing all decayed parts. Some 
authorities ail vise 4 dipping in boiling water for one minute 
in order to kill any living organisms that may be present. 

125. Lettuce, Roumaine and Escarole. — These vegetables 
are cultivated for their pleasant flavor and are in the market 
all the year round as they can be grown successfully under 
glass. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Cook potatoes, tomatoes, carrots, cabbage, onions, or any vegetable 
in season. 



CHAPTER IX 
FRUITS 

126. Definition. — In a restricted sense all seed-bearing 
portions of plants are termed fruits, but in the usual sense 
the term fruit is used to indicate only those seed-bearing 
portions containing a large amount of water and a small 
amount of dry matter in the form of sugar and non-nitro- 
genous compounds. Any food, for example, rhubarb, 
which takes the same place in the diet, may be classed as a 
fruit. 

127. Composition. — Fruits, like vegetables, contain a 
large amount of water. Some authorities go so far as to 
classify them according to their water content, those having 
more than 80 per cent of water being classed as ' 'flavor 
fruits." 

Another more common classification is as: stone fruits; 
pome fruits; and berries. 

The most important solid nutrient of fruit is carbo- 
hydrate. This occurs as a form of sugar; cane sugar, grape 
sugar (glucose), or fruit sugar (levulose). The last two 
sugars are usually found together in about equal proportions 
and are sometimes referred to as "invert sugar." 

Fat, except in the case of such fruits as the olive and 
the avacado or alligator pear, exists in fruits in such small 
quantities as to be negligible. 

Mineral matter, a most important constituent of all 
fruit, is found in the form of potassium salts, phosphorus, 
lime, and iron. Acids are present in varying amounts, 
from 1 to 2 per cent in apples to 7 per cent in lemons. The 
most common fruit acids are malic, citric, and tartaric. 

77 



78 FOOD 

Protein is found in fruits only in very small amounts. 

128. Digestibility. — The ease with which fruits are 
digested depends upon the nature of the fruit and the 
degree of ripeness and freshness. Unripe fruits are indi- 
gestible because of the large amount of cellulose present, 
and because the large amount of acid acts as an irritant 
to the digestive organs. Overripe fruits are indigestible 
because of the fermentation products which have begun 
to form. 

129. Food Value. — While fruits are not a source of much 
nourishment to the body, they yield energy and are of 
inestimable value as body-regulators. Their acids stimulate 
the flow of the digestive juices, and because of the organic 
potassium compound which they contain, fruits when oxidized 
in the bod}', leave basic or alkaline salts which help to neu- 
tralize the undesirable acids that are a necessary accompani- 
ment of all body metabolism. 

Fruits containing malic or citric acid serve as a laxative 
when taken before or at the beginning of breakfast. Fruits 
tend to lessen intestinal putrefaction, because of their 
fibrous nature which stimulates peristalsis, and because 
they furnish a condition unfavorable to the growth of 
intestinal bacteria. 

130. Selecting Fruit. — Fruits owe much of their popu- 
larity to their pleasant flavor. This flavor is due to ethereal 
substances that, as their name implies, may easily be lost. 
Therefore, fruits that arc not perfectly fresh show the fact 
by loss of flavor as well as by loss of color. As fruits deterior- 
ate, their coloring matter undergoes various chemical 
changes which give the faded, dull appearance noticeable 
in fruit of inferior quality. Fruit in prime condition 
should be firm and heavy in proportion to its size, and the 
skin should be unbroken. 

131. Preparation and Cooking. — Because of the great 
improvement in culture, storage facilities, and transportation, 
the season for fresh fruit has been greatly lengthened. 



FRUITS 79 

Moreover, commercially dried fruit has come into greater 
use, so that fruit of some kind is now considered a necessary- 
part of the daily ration. 

As so much fruit is eaten uncooked, great care should 
be observed in preparing it; otherwise it may be a means 
of conveying harmful organisms to the body. The popular 
idea that fruit must not be washed no longer prevails. It 
should be carefully washed, but only just before using, 
as most fruit is apt to mould. Fruits may be cooked in 
various ways, and in some cases the digestibility is increased 
by so doing, but the fact must be borne in mind that cooking 
often injures the flavor and changes the nature of the salts 
and acids present. Fruit discolors when pared and exposed 
to the air. This is due to the action of the oxydases (natural 
ferments) in the fruit, upon the tannin in the fruit, in the 
presence of air. 

The utensils used in cooking fruit must be of a mate- 
rial not easily acted upon by acids. A silver knife should 
always be used in preparing fruits. 

132. Storing. — Fruit to be stored must be in perfect 
condition, firm and free from the slightest bruise. It may 
be packed in barrels and kept in a clean cool place, not dry 
enough to cause the fruit to shrivel or moist enough to 
cause fermentation. The store room should be well ven- 
tilated, as fruits quickly absorb odors. Fruits keep best 
when wrapped individually in tissue-paper. 

133. Preserving. — Fruits may be preserved by canning, 
drying, pickling and candying, and in the form of jellies, 
jams and marmalades. These processes are considered 
under a separate heading. 

134. Dried Fruits. — Since the drying of fruit has become 
such an important industry on our western coast, such 
fruits as peaches, apricots, prunes, figs, and raisins are now 
easily obtained at all times, and are found to be cheaper in 
proportion to the solids they contain than are the fresh 
fruits. 



SO FOOD 

When properly cooked, dried fruits are a palatable and 
useful addition to the diet. They should he thoroughly 
cleaned, allowed to remain over right in sufficient water 
to cover them, then cooked in the same water until tender, 
with little or no sugar. Prunes arc best flavored when 
cooked without sugar. 

135. Jellies, Jams, and Marmalades.- These methods 
of preserving are particularly applicable to fruits and fruit 
juices. Their solidity and the presence of sugar in fairly 
large amounts, render them impervious to bacterial action. 
Their solidity is due to the existence in fruit o( a carbo- 
hydrate substance called pectin, which closely resembles 
and has many o( the properties of starch. 

136. Nuts.— llu 1 increasing popularity o( nuts as a part 
of the diet is probably due to a growing appreciation of 
their food value and appetizing qualities, as well as to a 
wider knowledge 1 of the various ways in which they may be 
used to advantage. 

('(imposition. — Owing to their deficiency in water, nuts 
offer a very concentrated form of nourishment. They are 
a rich source of proteins, some (the peanut for example 1 ) 
yielding as high as 29.8 per cent of this foodstuff. In the 
analysis of thirteen different varieties, half the edible portion 
of tin 1 nut consisted of fat or oil. Carbohydrate does not 
appear to any extent except in the chestnut. Mineral 
matter is an important constituent of all nuts, walnuts and 
almonds being especially rich in phosphorus. 

Flavor. — The flavor of nuts is largely dependent upon the 
nature of the oil present, though in some instances special 
flavoring substances arc 1 also present. This oil becomes 
rancid quickly and gives the intensely disagreeable 1 taste 
to spoiled nuts. 

Digestibility. — The difficulty experienced by some in 
digesting nuts is probably due to improper mastication and 
to the indiscriminate use 1 of nuts at such times as the end 
of a meal or late at night. To their concentrated form 



FRUITS 81 

also may be attributed some of the difficulty in their diges- 
tion. This is obviated if nuts are eaten a1 the proper time 
and in proper relation to the rest of the diet. Experiments 
in the use of almonds, peanuts, pecans, and walnuts have 
brought out the fact that, in a fruit and nut diet, the nut 
protein was digested quite as easily, though not quite so 
completely, as the protein of milk. 

137. The Use of Salt with Nuts.- While the addition 
of salt to nuts may improve their flavor, no proof exists 
that it in any way facilitates their digestion, as it is so 
popularly supposed to do. 

138. Food Value of Nuts.— Because of the composition 
of nuts, vegetarians have been in the habit of using them 
in their diet as a source of protein and fat. At the present 
time many others are gradually being forced to adopt the 
same plan, owing to the constantly increasing cost of animal 
food. In the use of nuts, however, satisfactory results 
can be obtained only by a thoughtful arrangement of the 
menu. The nuts should be made to take a definite place 
in the meal rather than to supplement an otherwise suffi- 
cient one. Because of their concentrated nature they 
should be combined with foods of a bulky type, such as 
vegetables, fruits, etc. Those of high protein and fat con- 
tent should be combined with the various carbohydrate 
foods, while the carbohydrate-containing chestnut may be 
advantageously used with milk, meat, and eggs. Nut 
butter, notably peanut, is very digestible owing to the fine 
division of the nut substance, and is in a form often relished 
by people opposed to nuts in other forms. Peanut oil 
may be substituted for olive oil in dressing salads. 

139. Use of Nuts in Cooking. — Nuts are more often 
eaten raw than cooked, though some, like the peanut and 
chestnut, are much improved in flavor by roasting. Nuts 
are now coming to be used very often in the making of 
soups, stuffings, salads, breads, cakes, etc. 

140. Storing Nuts. — Nuts should be stored in a dry place, 



82 FOOD 

because dampness quickly makes them rancid. Shelled 
nuts must bo carefully protected from insects. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Experiment 1. The Test for Pectin. Add two teaspoonfuls of 
alcohol to two teaspoonfuls of cooked fruit juice. Mix thoroughly. 
The formation of a gelatinous mass indicates the presence of pectin. 

Experiment 2. The Test for Tannin. -Extracl the juice from 
unripe fruit, filter and add ferric chloride. A black color indicates the 
presence of tannin. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Cook fruits in various ways, as boiling, baking, scalloping, stewing. 



CHAPTER X 
FATS AND OILS 

141. Composition. — Fats and oils are a combination of 
the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The oxygen 
is less in proportion to the carbon than in the carbo- 
hydrates, which accounts for the greater yield of energy by 
fats and oils. The fats and the oils were the first of the 
organic foodstuffs to have their composition determined. 
Upon study it was found that all fats are formed by the 
chemical union of fatty acids and glycerol or glycerin. 
The kind of fat depends upon the fatty acids in the com- 
bination. The common fatty acids, beginning with that 
having the lowest melting-point, are butyric, oleic, palmitic, 
and stearic. 

Glycerol has the power to unite with one, two, or three 
fatty acids to form simple or complex glycerides. 

142. Properties. — As to physical properties the fats 
and oils differ in that fats are solid at ordinary temperature 
while oils are the reverse or liquid at ordinary temperatures. 
The chemical difference in the various fats and oils depends 
upon the fatty acid predominating. In tallow and lard 
the glycerides are mainly stearin and palmatin with only a 
small percentage of olein, but in the softer fats and oils, 
olein predominates. 

In butter the glyceride is chiefly butyrin. Small amounts 
of various other glycerides are found in combination. 

Fats have a varying melting-point because they are 
mixtures rather than pure glycerides. Hard or animal 
fats have the highest melting-points and oils or liquid fats a 
low melting-point. 

83 



84 FOOD 

143. Function of Fats in Nutrition— Fats are broken 
down in normal metabolism and yield twice as many calories 
of heat per gram as carbohydrate and protein. The primary 
use of fats in the body is as a fuel or heat producer, only 
excess amounts being stored as fat in the body tissues. 

As <7 building material fat is changed into the composi- 
tion of the protoplasm of the cells or is stored as body fat 
in certain parts of the body. The tissues around the liver 
and the abdomen are. as a rule, the first to store this excess 
fat . 

Some fats hold in solution substances that are essential 
in normal nutrition and thus serve as body regulators. The 
fa: of milk, of egg yolk, and to some extent the soft fat of 
beef, belong to this class. A deficiency oi these foods in 
the diet will be shown in the slow growth and development 
of the body. 

144. Digestibility of Fats. — The fats and oils are changed 
back to fatty acids and glycerin in the digestive tract, and, 
as such, are absorbed through the intestinal walls into the 
lymphatics. From there they go into the general circula- 
tion of the blood and are found again as a fat. The reuniting 
of the parts takes place at the time of absorption into the 
blood stream. 

It is now a well established fact that the fineness of the 
emulsion into which a fat is changed determines the length 
of time and ease of the process of digestion and assimilation. 

The finely emulsified fats found in milk and eggs may 
have the digestive process completed in the stomach. Those 
forming a different emulsion and having a higher melting- 
paint are not changed until they reach the intestines and 
came in contact with the bile salts and other juices which 
act upon the fats. 

There is some difference of opinion as to the extent 
of the influence of fats in the process oi the digestion of 
other foods. The fact that fats are unaltered in the mouth, 
except for being melted or divided into fine particles, that 



FATS AND OILS 85 

only certain kinds are modified in the stomach, and that 
others, by coating the mucous lining of the stomach with a 
film of fat, interfere with the action of the gastric juice, 
leads to the conclusion that a meal rich in fat will be slow 
of digestion. Therefore, in summarizing, it may be said 
that the digestiblity of a fat depends upon its melting- 
point and the fineness of the emulsion in which it occurs. 

145. Sources of Fats. — Fats are obtained from both 
animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats 
are cream, butter, egg yolk, fat of beef, mutton, pork and 
bacon, bone marrow, chicken fat, and cod liver oil. 

Vegetable fats are those derived from the seeds of plants, 
as olive oil, cottonseed oil, corn oil, and nut oils. 

Butter and cream are the most highly prized of the 
animal fats because of the case with which they are digested 
and because they supply important vitamines, fat-soluble 
substances. They are expensive foods and often, where 
cost must be considered, it is necessary to substitute some 
less expensive fat for ordinary use. Butterine or oleomar- 
garine may be used in place of butter, except for table use. 
Butter contains 84 per cent of fat, about 12 per cent to 13 
per cent of water, a little curd, and nearly 2 per cent of 
salt. 

Butterine and oleomargarine are made from suet and 
cottonseed oil churned together in milk, or milk and cream, 
which impart a small amount of the growth-stimulating 
substances found in butter. The materials used and the 
process of manufacture are usually absolutely clean and 
wholesome and the product is then to be preferred to 
renovated butter or even fresh dairy butter made under 
undesirable conditions. 

Bacon fat ranks with butter and cream in the matter 
of expense and should be saved and utilized in the cooking 
of other foods. 

Lard is the fat of pork rendered and refined. The best 
grade is called leaf lard, and is extracted from the solid 



SO DD 

ys 01 gi ades an the 
rend - animal. 

The various - s I rfes or inds s 

under such tra s as s s aiv 

chiefly mixtun - - d. 

is the hard. kie. / of the animal and is 

is I in making rich puddings and in: - 1: ma] 

_- form a medium 

suits ang purposes 

MutiU x ; tallow, on account ( s strong 

and flavor, - mbined with other fats is hold 

is 

B and in shin ho: - 

animal, is a :'. >w melti] g-\ int and. consequently, 

- asy of I gestion. It gives ss I soup 

which is - found in 
[ts chief value, however, is that tains 

ing a remarkable stimulating influence upon 
the body. 

C) is an excellent substitu 

making V- a matte: ised 

which butter is us I \ ad. 

C is a well ki ad I as a 1 

building medicine, and probably owe- - .cial action 

to the presei -sow subs s of value in the 

building and repair of the ssues 

0'. is manufactured ripe ol - Fne fruit 

- gathered just before it turns blai is t this stag 
:: contains the maximum amount To obtain the 
oil. the olives are hrst crushed and the oil is then extracted 
by pressure. The first oil that flows under slight : ss 

is considered of - and that \ : . by 

great ssure is of a second g] The dark . 

removed by allowing the oil to stand until the sediment 
settles and then filtering it. 

The olive oil is dependent upon the variety 



FATS AM) OILS 87 

and ripeness of the olives used and upon the temperature 
and amount of pressure used at t he time it is obtained. 

Cottonseed oil is used in combination with other fats 
and :is an adulterant of and substitute for olive oil. It is 
undoubtedly the most important of the vegetable fats 
now in use. The oil which is extracted from the seeds by 
pressure is refined by :i secret process which removes the 
characteristic flavor, r l he cost of the host quality of cotton- 
seed oil is loss than one-half that of a medium grade of 
olive oil and the value is essentially the same since both 
contain practically 1(H) per cent of fat. 

Many of tin 1 common nuts furnish an edible >ntl butter 
or oil of low melting-point, which is much valued as a fuel 

fond. 

146. Cooking in Fats.- — Fats, when heated to a high 
temperature, slowly decompose, giving off acrolein, a sub- 
stance having a disagreeable odor and an irritating effect 
upon the mucous linings of the body. 

Deep fat frying, when properly done, is not so undesir- 
able as formerly believed by many people. If the fat is 
not heated to the extreme temperature at which it decom- 
poses so that the food does not carry with it this objectionable 
acrolein, there is little to be said against fried food for the 
adult having a normal digestion. It is the abuse of this 
method rather than its use that should be condemned. In 
selecting a medium for frying, it is important to consider 
the temperature at which decomposition takes place. Olive 
oil, considered by many people as the best medium for frying, 
may be heated above 600° F. before burning. Crisco and 
some of the other compounds will bear much more heat or 
about 800° F. Cottolene has a burning point of 450° F. 
and lard of about 400° F. Butter has the lowest burning- 
point or about 350° F. and is, therefore, not desirable as a 
fat for frying. 

The temperature of the fat suitable for this method of 
cooking ranges from 400° F. to 450° F. according to the 



SS FOOD 

nature of the article to be cooked. A piece of bread one 
inch square will turn a golden brown in one minute in a fat 
that is at the right temperature for trying an uncooked 
mixture such as doughnuts or fritters, and in forty seconds 
when the fat is at the right temperature for a cooked mixture 
such as croquettes. Foods likely to absorb fat during this 
process of cooking should be protected by a covering of egg 
and bread crumbs. The egg coagulates readily and with 
the crumbs forms a crust which prevents the soaking up 
of fat provided the temperature of the fat is sufficiently high. 

147. Preparation of Fats. — Many of the animal fats may 
be utilized in combination with other foods. For example, 
suet drippings and other hard fats may be tried out. clarified, 
and mixed with cottonseed oil or any fat having a low 
melting-point. This produces a mixture having a medium 
melting-point which may be used in making cakes and pastry. 
It may be employed also as a medium for deep fat frying. 

At this time when great stress is placed upon the elimina- 
tion of waste in the household the use of fats hitherto unused 
is extremely important. 

148. To Clarify Fat.— Fats may be clarified by adding 
slices of raw potato to the fat and heating slowly until it 
stops foaming, then cooling and straining through a cloth. If 
the fat is small in quantity, add a considerable amount of 
boiling water, stir vigorously, and allow to cool. When the 
fat has hardened, remove it in a cake from the top of the 
water. A sediment will be found on the bottom of the cake 
oi fat which may be removed with a knife. 

149. Rendering Fats. — To render fat remove the out- 
side skin and lean from fat meat and cut the fat in small 
pieces. Place the fat in a kettle and cover it with cold 
water. Cook slowly in an uncovered vessel until the water 
is all evaporated, then reduce the heat and let the fat slowly 
try out. When the fat is quiet and the pieces oi fatty 
tissue are settled at the bottom of the kettle, cool, strain 
through a cloth and allow to harden. 



FATS AND OILS 89 

EXPERIMENTS 

Experiment 1. Solubility of Oil in Water. — Pour a teaspoonful 
of oil into a test tube and add the same quantity of wafer. Shako 
well and then examine. Set aside for a while and examine again. Is 

oil soluble in water? 

Experiment 2. Spoon Test for Butter. — Heat a piece of butter 
about the size of a bean in a tablespoon, stirring with a toothpick. 
Note the amount of foam produced, and the noise made in boiling. 
Genuine butter makes very little noise on boiling, but produces much 
foam. Renovated butter boils noisily, but it produces little foam, 
while oleomargarine boils with more or less sputtering, but produces 
no foam. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Render and clarify fats. 

Fry in deep fat croquettes, fritters, and French fried potatoes. 
Prepare sal. id dressings: French, boiled and mayonnaise. 



CHAPTER XI 
MILK 

150. Value As Food. — Milk contains all five of the 
foodstuffs and on this account is sometimes spoken of as a 
perfect food. It is a perfect food only for an infant, for 
while it contains all of the nutrients required by the body, 
these are not in the right proportion for the nourishment 
of an adult. Owing to the large percentage of water which 
it contains, it is too bulky; to get the proper amount of 
other nutrients a man would have to consume at least eight 
pints a day. 

TABLE VIL— AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK 

Protein 3.3% 

Fat 4.0', 

Carbohydrates 5.0' , 

Mineral matter 0.7% 

Water S7.0% 

Milk in normal times is one of the cheapest sources of 
animal protein; the amount of protein in one quart of milk 
being equal to that in one pound of beef or in eight or nine 
eggs. Milk depends largely for its fuel value on the amount 
of fat present. Milk with only four per cent of fat will 
3 T ield G75 calories per quart; from 97 to 98 per cent of milk 
protein is said to be absorbed. The fact that milk has no 
waste and may be used without preparation should make it 
a very valuable part of the diet. That it is a tissue building 
and growth producing food makes it especially valuable 
in the feeding of children. 

151. Composition. — Milk varies greatly in composition; 
much depends upon the breed, age, and food of the cow. 

90 



MILK 



91 



The amount of fat present is a good indication of the quality 
for milk rich in cream is always found to be correspondingly 
rich in protein and sugar. Usually the amount of fat sets 
the price standard commercially, and most states require 
milk to contain 4 per cent of fat. 

Protein in milk is represented by casein and albumin. 
The casein is different from the albumin in that it contains 
phosphorus and sulphur. Casein is coagulated by acid and 
rennet. The action of acid is called "curdling," and that 
of rennet, "clotting." In curdling, the casein is simply 
precipitated without undergoing any chemical change; this 
is supposed to be due to the fact that acid separates the 
lime salts from the casein, and then it becomes insoluble. 

TABLE VIII.— COMPARATIVE FOOD VALUE OF MILK AND 
THE EDIBLE PORTION OF OTHER COMMON FOODS 





Refuse. 


Water. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Fat. 


Carbo- 
hydr- 
ates. 


Miner- 
als. 


Food 

Value, 

Calories. 


Whole milk, 1 1!). . 


3.00 


0.87 


0.03 


0.04 


0.05 


0.01 


325 


Skim milk, 11!)... 


0.00 


0.90 


0.04 




0.05 


0.01 


170 


Cheese, 1 lb 


0.00 


0.34 


0.26 


0.34 


0.04 




1965 


Butter, 1 lb 


0.00 


0.11 


0.01 


0.85 




. 03 


3605 


Beef (round), 1 lb. 


0.08 


0.61 


0.18 


0.12 




0.01 


870 


Pork (ham), lib.. 


0.14 


0.35 


0.13 


0.34 




0.04 


1655 


Wheat bread, 1 lb. 


0.00 


0.35 


0.10 


0.01 


. 53 


0.01 


1205 


Oitmeal, 1 lb ... . 


0.00 


0.07 


0.16 


0.07 


0.68 


0.02 


1860 


Dried beans, 1 11). 


0.00 


0.13 


. 22 


0.02 


. 59 


0.04 


1590 


Potatoes, 1 lb. . . . 


0.15 


0.67 


0.02 




0.15 


0.01 


325 



Albumin is present in very small quantities and is coagu- 
lated very slowly when milk is heated. 

Fat is represented by cream which is distributed through 
the fresh milk in the form of globules, but these, being 
lighter than water, rise to the surface as the milk stands. 
Commercially speaking, fat is the most important constituent 
of the milk as from it butter is made. 



- .1 in r i - . 

s - - s 

M - - - - am 

small; 

1;". \\ milk 

present in the s 

I - 

ind mi v 

: is s 

is in s mi. 

.... 

Milk 

.. 

s 

'..-/- r ie C M - should 

exercised cc milk 

^> milk furnishes one ol 
v 
... Milk should 

.1 it 
readies the eons c s mixed 

[61 Skim M ; wn 

..... 



MILK 03 

the exception of fat, skim milk contains all the constituents 
of whole milk, and may be used advantageously. 

155. Sour Milk. -When milk stands too long or in a 
warm place, the bacteria in ii rapidly multiply and change 
the sugar, or lactose, into an acid called lactic acid. This 
acid acts on the casein, hardening it and giving to sour milk 
its characteristic curdled appearance. As the greater por- 
tion of lactic acid is formed during the first twenty-four 
horns and the process is generally completed in forty-eight 
hours, it follows that sour milk should be made use {){ without 
further delay. 

156. Certified Milk.— Certified milk is milk that has 
been produced under the very best sanitary conditions 
and under the supervision o( a medical milk commission. 
Its cost is about twice that iA' ordinary milk because o( the 
extra expense in producing it. It forms less than one per 
cent of the milk o( commerce. 

157. Pasteurized Milk.- Pasteurized milk is milk that 
has been heated to a temperature of 140° F. or 145° F., kept 
at this temperature twenty to thirty minutes, and then 
cooled rapidly. This process does not kill nil bacteria, hut 
is supposed to destroy bacteria, of diseases transmissible 
by milk, such as tuberculosis, typhoid fever, etc. 

158. Sterilized Milk.— This is milk that has been raised 
io a temperature sufficiently high to kill all active bacteria 
present. In the light of the latest scientific investigations 
there is no difference in the nutritive value of boiled and 
unboiled milk. 

159. Condensed Milk.— Milk from which a large pro- 
portion <^ the water has been evaporated is known as con- 
densed milk. The unsweetened or commonly called "evap- 
orated" milk has a creamy consistency, is sold in bottles, 
and must be used within a few days. The sweetened has a 
large amount of cane sugar, 40 per cent, and being sealed 
in tin cans may be kept indefinitely, 

160. Milk Powder. — By milk powder is meant milk that 



FOOD 

has a fine whit p 

is added, the product resembles ..nary milk and may 
used in og. 

161. Modified Milk. — Modified milk is cow's milk 

> I signed to : ber's mlk in the feeding of int. 

As the pr ; n v Istuffs d two milks, 

- milk containing m less sug 

human milk, this - medied ling to the 

cow's milk lactose, or some digestible carbohydrates such 
as rice t, and . .in air. . sterile 

wal The ^ - ilk is liges 

ssof the curd formed. 
The cus adding lime wj i milk with, the mis- 

D idea - g the alkalinity of the milk no loi 

holds go as it has lime water d< 

rather than increases this alkalinity, because of the ; 
cipita :" the calcium 

162. Malted Milk. Malted milk is a mixture . I - 
bed milk. ? malt, and bicarbonate of 

This milk - tetimes found sy of 

digestion ::.. .ilk: this is du I the 

casein, like tha lensed ilk, clots very loose!;- 

ill. 

163. Milk in Cooking. The addition of milk to ai 
recipe greatly - - the nutritive value. Bread made 
with milk is much higher . due than that made 
with . Milk £ a g at source of ] rog dous 

rial in a die:. White sauces is .1 nutri- 

tively but i tically in ul og left over food. Simple 

desserts made princip . milk a - mended 

dietetically. 

161. T ar is made E milk. 

The practice of pasteurising the cream before churning is 
to be recommended, i nly to eliminate all danger of 

disease, but to gel pres nt so that I 

that will produce lesired id fermentation may 



MILK 95 

be added. The pleasanl flavor and aroma of butter is due 
to this fermentation, 

TABLE IX. -COMPOSITION OF BUTTER 

Fat si 0% 

Casein 1 ,30' , 

Moisture 12.73" , 

Salts L.97% 

Butter is one of the most easily digested and absorbed 
forms of fat. 'Phis may be due to the facl that the butter 
fal is about 40 per cent olein, a substance which enters 
largely into the composition of body fat; also because of 
its low melting-point . 

Butter is the greatest source of fal in the diet of most 
people and is especially valuable in the treatment of such 
diseases as phthisis, diabetes, etc. 

165. Butter Substitutes.— Butter which lias stood so 
long that it Ikls become rancid may be melted to get rid 
of the disagreeable odor and flavor and then rechurned 
with fresh milk or cream. The product is known as renovated 
butter. 

Oleomargarine is made by churning fat together with 
milk or milk and cream. 

166. Cheese. — Cheese is made from the curd of milk 
which Undergoes processes of "ripening," coagulating, 
removing whey, salting and pressing. 

Cheese may be divided into two classes: 

1. Hard: Chedder, Edam, Swiss, Parmesan, Roquefort. 

2. Soft: Brie, Camembert, Gorgonzola, Limburger, 
ISTeufchatel, Stilton. 

Contrary to popular opinion, cheese is not difficult of 
digestion if eaten at the proper time and in suitable amounts. 
Recent experiments show that 95 per cent of the protein 
and more than 95 per cent of the fat is digested and absorbed. 
Cheese, like milk, is digested chiefly in the intestines. 

Food value— As cheese is deficient in carbohydrates, its 



96 POOD 

food value is greatly increased by serving it with carbo- 
hydrate foods such as bread, rice. etc. As it is a highly 
concentrated food it is well to use it in combination with such 
bulky foods as vegetables. As it is practically the same 
type of food as meat, fish, and eggs, it should be used to 
replace these articles in a meal, not to supplement them. 
If not tised in too large quantities, cheese will be found 
useful in a diet. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Make butter, cottage cheese, junket, cocoa, ami cream soups. 



CHAPTER XII 
EGGS 

167. Structure. — Structurally the egg is divided as 
follows: 

Shell. — Composed largely of lime and magnesium salts. 
White. — Composed of water, protein, ash, and small 
amount of fat. 

Yolk. — Composed of water, protein, fat, and ash. 
Membranes. — (1) The tough skin covering the whole of 
the egg under the shell. 
(2) The delicate tissue surrounding the yolk. 

168. Composition. — Eggs, like milk, contain a large per- 
centage of water and an important amount of protein, fat 
and mineral salts, but no starch. 

The average composition of egg as purchased is water 
65.5 per cent; protein 11.9 per cent; fat 9.3 per cent; and 
mineral matter 0.9 per cent. 

The protein of egg is albumin which is a valuable tissue 
building food. White of egg consists of several albumins, 
the chief of which is ovalbumin. Popularly, egg white is 
called pure albumin. Egg yolk also contains a number of 
different proteins, including a large percentage of vitellin 
and lecithin which furnish phosphorus in a form available 
for the body needs. 

The fat of egg is found chiefly in the yolk, and, like 
milk fat, exists as an emulsion. Held in solution in the 
fat of the egg yolk is found a vitamine ( fat soluble A is the 
name given to this substance by scientists), which is essential 
for the best growth and development of the body. A 
yellow coloring matter called lutein is dissolved in the fat 

97 



98 FOOD 

o( the yolk and gives if the characteristic color. This color- 
ing depends somewhat upon the nature of t ho food o( the 
lions. Pale-colored yolks are thought to indicate a deficiency 
in green food. 

The chief ash constituents of the egg are phosphorus, 
calcium, iron, and sulphur. The yolk o( the egg is much 
richer than the white in these compounds, which are adapted 
to an important pan in the building o( blood, bono, and 
muscle. The edible portion oi an egg shows an average 
of 0.0030 per cent of iron in forms available for use in the 
body. The richness o( the egg in iron compounds is one of 
the reasons for the early addition oi egg to the diet of a 
young child. 

The high sulphur content o\ egg, found chiefly in the 
albumin of the white, results in an excess of arid forming 
elements and makes the egg an acid-forming food. In this 
particular, egg resembles moat rather than milk. The 
sulphur present forms hydrogen sulphide on the decomposi- 
tion o{ the albumin, giving the bad odor to rotten eggs. 

169. Food Value. An egg oi average size will yield 
about "< 5 calories. An egg weighing two and two-third 
ounces will yield 100 calories. One pound of egg (eight 
cges o{ average size) will yield 672 calories or twice as 
much as are furnished by an equal weight of milk and 
a little loss than tho calories from a pound i>f loan meat. 
This indicates that eggs at ordinary prices are an economical 
substitute for moat. The exceptional nature and high 
food value oi the nutrients oi egg plaoos it among the indis- 
pensable articles o( diet in every household and gives it a 
prominent place in the dietary o( anaemic and tubercular 
patients. 

170. Digestibility. Egg protein or albumin is digested 
and absorbed as completely as milk protein or case in (97—98 
per cent absorbed), and the fat oi eggs isdigested as thor- 
oughly as milk fat. Experiments have shown that eggs 
slightly cooked at a temperature below thai of boiling water. 



EGGS 99 

arc more easily and quickly digested than those cooked al 
a higher temperature. Moderate heal makes the albumin 
tender and jelly-like, while strong heat makes it tough, 
hard, and dry, in which condition it offers more resistance 
to the digesl ive juices. 

171. Selection and Care. Eggs arc divided commercially 
into groups according to freshness, appearance, size, cleanli- 
ness, and color. 

In absolutely fresh eggs, the contents very nearly fill 
the shell and the while is jelly-like in consistency and is 
practically free from bacteria. As soon as an egg is laid, 
the water begins to evaporate through the porous shell, 
gradually increasing the size of the air space inside 1 the shell. 
As the evaporation continues, Ihis space is being filled with 
micro-organisms which set up fermentation and cause the 
egg to spoil. 

Freshness is determined in various ways. Candling 
and the salt solution tests are most frequently employed 
where large numbers of eggs are to be examined. Shaking 
to determine the fullness of the shell, and observing the 

roughness of 1 he shell are 1 he simplest of I he household tests. 

Candling consists in looking through the egg toward a 
bright lighl and noting the appearance of the contents. A 
perfectly fresh egg appears unclouded or translucent, as 
is shown at A in Fig. 27. If decomposition has begun, a 
dark spot may be observed which gradually increases in 
size as shown in />' and C. A bad egg or one unfil for use 
appears dark colored all over as in I). 

Crack shelled eggs are easily inoculated with bacteria cr 
contaminated by odors and can be kept for only a short 
time. They are sold much cheaper and may be used when 
it is certain thai they are fresh and clean. 

Dirty shell eggs arc undesirable because they have been 
in contact with filth and are liable to bo contaminated. 
Seconds are the undersize, cracked, or soiled o<nrs, or those 
otherwise unfitted to be classed as first grade. 



100 



FOOD 




Courtesy of The Macmillan Co. 

Fig. 27. — Appearance of different grades of eggs before the candle. 



EGGS 101 

The color of the egg-shell influences somewhat the mar- 
ket value but not the food value. Analysis shows that there 
is no uniform difference in the properties and food value of 
brown-shelled and white-shelled eggs. Brown-shelled eggs 
bring the higher price in the Boston markets, while white- 
shelled eggs are preferred in the New York markets. 

172. Specific Gravity. — At the New York State Experi- 
ment Station it was found that the average fresh egg has a 
specific gravity of 1.090. The changes in specific gravity 
correspond to the changes in water content. As the egg 
becomes older its density increases through the evaporation 
of water through the pores of the shell. 

173. Preservation. — A large percentage of the eggs used 
are produced hundreds of miles from the consumer, thus 
necessitating safe methods of transporation and preservation. 
Eggs designed for shipping long distances should be perfectly 
fresh. They should be carefully packed in special cases to 
insure freedom from contact with materials having strong 
or unpleasant odors. Eggs are most plentiful and cheapest 
during April, May, and June, and should then be stored 
for use in the winter months. 

The methods of preserving eggs may be grouped under 
three general classes: 

(1) By preventing contact with the air, by immersing 
the eggs in a solution of some sort. 

(2) By keeping them at a low temperature, as in cold 
storage or freezing. 

(3) By evaporating the moisture as in drying. 

For the individual housekeeper, preventing contact with 
the air is probably the most satisfactory. To accomplish 
this pack the eggs in a suitable container and pour over 
them a 10 per cent solution of water-glass (sodium silicate) 
until the eggs are completely covered. It is claimed that 
this method will keep the eggs in a wholesome condition 
from four to six months and retain to a surprising degree 
the flavor and appearance of freshness. Packing in salt, 



102 FOOD 

bran, or sawdust, little end down, has been found an adequate 
means of preserving eggs for cooking purposes by many 
housekeepers. The object in all these methods is, oi course, 
to fill the pores oi the shell and prevent the evaporation 
of the contents. 

When fresh eggs are put in cold storage, at a temperature 
of 32° to 34° F., they keep for several months with but 
slight change in quality and flavor. Eggs should be candled 
after removing from cold storage. It is advisable to use 
storage eggs soon after they are taken from storage, as they 
deteriorate rapidly after changing the temperature con- 
ditions. Sometimes eggs are broken and sold in the bulk. 
This necessitates freezing and keeping at a temperature oi 
l-\, or a little below freezing-point. 

Broken eggs are often dried or desiccated. The product 
is usually ground into a powder. This powder is thoroughly 
mixed with water and used in place oi fresh eggs 

A number of egg substitutes are on the market. They 
are usually a compound oi corn starch and casein and do 
not really take the place oi eggs because they do not furnish 
the nutrients which give the egg its prominent place as a 
food material. 

174. Preparation and Cooking. — Eggs may be cooked 
in a variety of ways. In the shell, as soft cooked or hard 
cooked; broken ami left whole, as baked or poached; beaten, 
as in omelet or scrambled egg: or m combination with other 
materials, as in puddings, custards, cakes and sauces. In 
all cases the effect of heat upon albumin should be kept in 
mind. When the white oi egg is heated to a Temperature oi 
134° F., it slowly changes to'a semi-transparent mass. When 
heated to U>0° F.. it is coagulated or becomes opaque and 
more or less solid. The yolk of egg coagulates at a some- 
what lower temperature than the white, or about 122° F. 

Custards should be poached or baked in a pan of water 
which is not allowed to reach the boiling-point, in order 
to insure a smooth, jelly-like mass. 



EGGS 103 

The coagulation of albumin is demonstrated in the use 
of egg for clearing coffee. As the coagulated albumin 
rises to the surface it carries with it the scattered grounds 
and clears the coffee. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Experiment 1. The Effect of Heat upon Albumin.— (1) Place the 
white of an egg in a beaker and heal gradually in a saucepan of 
water. Test with a thermometer and note: (a) the temperature at 
which it begins to harden; (6) the temperature at which the egg is 
completely hardened. 

(2) Examine and compare the coagulated albumin in the beaker 
in (1) with an equal amount of egg white that has been boiled five 
minutes. Draw conclusions as to the temperature at which albumin 
should be cooked to make it tender and easily digested. 

Experiment 2. Comparison of Lightness of Egg Beaten with a 
Dover Beater and with a Swedish Beater.— (a) Beat the white of an 
egg with a Dover Heater and measure the product in a standard meas- 
uring cup. 

(6) Heat another egg with a Swedish heater. 

Compare (a) and (/>) as to quantity and as to the size of the air 
cells. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter 

prepare: 

Kggs: soft and hard cooked, poached, scrambled, and omelets. 

Boiled and baked custards. 



CHAPTER XIII 
MEATS 

175. Structure. — Meat, which is the flesh of animals 
used for food, is made up of the lean or muscular tissue, 
fatty tissue, gristle, and bone. 

If a piece of lean meat be examined under the micro- 
scope, it will be found to consist of fiber held together in 
bundles by a thin membrane which is the connective tissue. 
On closer examination these libers are seen to be hollow 
tubes filled with a liquid which is called muscle juice. 

176. Kinds. — Meat may be either tender or tough. 
Both kinds may come from the same animal, but from 
different parts of the creature. 

Tender meat comes from the muscles of the animal that 
are used but little. There is a minimum amount of con- 
nective tissue in tender meat, and it is delicate and easily 
broken. The tube walls are also delicate. 

Tough meat comes from the muscles of the animal that 
arc used a great deal. The fibers are coarse and the con- 
nective tissue thick and hard. 

177. Ripening. — The process know r n as ripening has much 
to do with the texture of meat. Immediately after slaughter- 
ing, the meat is juicy and tender, but shortly afterwards a 
stiffening of the muscles takes place, probably because the 
myosin of the muscle juice clots. The meat must then be 
allowed to hang or ripen, during which time an acid is formed. 
This acid not only acts as a solvent upon the coagulated 
myosin, but also imparts a pleasant flavor to the meat. 

178. Composition. — Meat contains: 

1. Proteins such as, albumin, myosin, collagen, and 

104 



MEATS 105 

elastin, and also gelatin, which closely resembles true 
protein. 

2. Fat in varying amounts from 3 per cent as in dried 
bsef, to 90 per cent in fat pork. 

3. Carbohydrates, less than 1 per cent and in the form of 
glycogen or muscle sugar. 

4. Mineral matter in the form of potash, lime, magnesia, 
iron, etc. 

5. Water varying from 50 to 75 per cent. 

179. Digestibility. — Meat contains the most easily and 
quickly digested forms of proteins, 98 per cent of which is 
digested and absorbed. Fat is digested according to the 
amount eaten, large quantities retarding digestion. The 
extractives, which are the substances which give to the 
different meats their characteristic flavors, also aid digestion 
by stimulating the flow of gastric juice. 

180. Food Value. — Because of the high protein content 
of meat and the ease with which it is digested, meat has a 
high food value. Too much meat, however, may be harm- 
ful, probably owing to the fact that the decomposition 
products are difficult to eliminate from the body. The 
uric acid forming substances are abundant, and meat pro- 
tein is very susceptible to intestinal putrefaction. The 
fuel value of meat depends to a great extent on the 
amount of fat eaten. 

181. Selecting Meats. — All meat should come from 
healthy, well-fed animals, and should be free from dyes, 
chemicals or preservatives that in any way render it unfit 
for food. In choosing meat such points as color, texture, 
amount of fat, etc., will differ with the different kinds of 
meat, but general points to observe are freshness, soundness, 
and absence of odor. 

182. Cooking. — The way in which meat should be cooked 
depends upon whether it is tough or tender. The object 
of all cooking is to kill parasites and bacteria, to improve 
the flavor and appearance of the meat, and to loosen the 



106 FOOD 

fibers so that they may be more readily acted upon by the 
digestive juices. Tender meat should be so cooked as to 
retain the juices. This is accomplished by applying a 
high degree of heat at first. This sears the surface of the 
meat by coagulating the albumin, thus preventing the 
evaporation of the juices. 

Tough meat should be so cooked as to soften the con- 
nective tissue and change it into gelatin. This is best 
accomplished by cooking in water below the boiling-point 
for a long time. 

183. Methods cf Preserving Meat. — Meat may be pre- 
served by refrigeration, freezing, drying, canning, pickling, 
smoking, and the use of such preservatives as salt, sugar, 
vinegar, and saltpeter. .Meat that is to be sold as fresh is 
kept in such condition, for a certain length of time, by 
simply hanging in the ordinary cold storage room. Certain 
states have laws governing the length of time the meat 
may be kept. 

If meat is to be kept a very long time, it must be frozen — 
that is, none of the juices may remain liquid, and the fibers 
must be separated by layers of ice. This condition may be 
brought about by subjecting the meat to a temperature of 
about 15° F. Frozen meat should be thawed very slowly 
before cooking, otherwise it will be flabby. 

184. Beef. — Beef is more extensively used than any 
other kind of meat. Farm cattle are supposed to give a 
higher grade of beef than ranch cattle. Good beef has the 
following characteristics: 

(1) The color is bluish red. 

(2) The flesh is firm and elastic, scarcely moistening 
the finger when touched. 

(3) It is almost odorless. 

(4) In the more expensive cuts, the fibers are fine with 
very little connective tissue. 

(5) The lean part is well marbled with fat. 

(6) The fat is firm, clear, and free from spots. 



MEATS 



107 




1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

3. Ribs. 

4. Shoulder clod. 

5. Fore shank. 

6. Brisket. 

7. Cross ribs. 

8. Plate. 

9. Navel. 

10. Loin. 

11. Flank. 

12. Rump. 

13. Round. 

14. Second cut round. 

15. Hind shank. 



P/i i 




Fig. 28. — Diagrams of cuts of beef. 



108 



FOOD 



(7) An acid reaction is given to litmus paper. An 
alkaline or neutral reaction indicates that some preservative 
has been used. 

185. Cuts of Beef .—(See Fig. 28.) 





(a) Fore Quarter 


Part 




Uses 


1. Neck 




Beef tea 


2. Chuck 




Steaks and Roasts 


3. Ribs, 5th and 6th 


Roasts 


4. Shoulder 




Pot Roasts 


5. Fore shank 




Soup 


6. Brisket 




Corning 


7. Cross ribs 




Pot roast 


8. Plate 




Stewing and corning 


9. Navel 




Stewing and corning 




(b) 


Hind Quarter 


Part 




Uses 


10. Loin 




Steaks and roasts 


11. Flank 




Steak and corning 


12. Rump 




Steak, roasts, corning 


13. Round 




Steaks, Beef a la Mode 


14. Second cut of round Pot roast and corning 


15. Hind shank 




Soups 



186. Veal. — Veal is the flesh of the calf. Good veal 
comes from an animal about two months old. The color 
should be dull pink. 

A recent investigation as to the comparative food value 
of immature veal and mature beef, has brought to light the 
fact that the difference in composition between the two 
is so slight as to be of no physiological significance. How- 
ever, the larger proportion of connective tissue found in the 
veal makes it necessary to cook veal slowly for a long time 
so that this connective tissue may be softened. When this 



MEATS 



109 



is done the veal has been found to be quite as easily digested, 
and as reliable a source of nitrogen, as the beef. This dis- 
covery does away with any ground for the old prejudice 
against veal as an article of food. 

187. Sweetbreads. — Sweetbreads are obtained from 
the calf. That known as the heart-bread is the thymus 
gland. It is round and much more delicate than the throat- 
bread, which is the thyroid gland, and is long and thin. 
The pancreas or stomach bread is now used very little. 







1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

3. Shoulder. 

4. Fore shank. 

5. Breast. 



6. Ribs. 

7. Loin. 

8. Flank. 

9. Leg. 

10. Hind shank. 




Fig. 29. — Diagrams of cuts of veal. 

188. Lamb and Mutton. — The best mutton' comes from 
a sheep about three years old. The flesh should be fine 
grained and dull red, while the fat should be white, hard, 
dry, rather than oily, and well distributed through the lean. 

All lamb should be less than a year old. Spring lamb 
is from two to three months old. While the color of the 
flesh differs from that of mutton, the better way of judging 
between the two is by the bone. In lamb the ends of the 
limb bones are separated from the shaft, while in the older 
animal the ends become a part of the shaft and form one 
bone. 



no 



FOOD 



189. Cuts of Lamb and Mutton. — (a) Hind-quarter: 
Leg; loin; Bank. 

(b) Fon-quarter: Fore ribs; breast; nock. 

Loins. — The loins are used for roasts and chops. When 
the bone of the rib chop is scraped free from meat, it is a 
French chop. The rib chops are considered more delicate 
than the loin chops and are more expensive. The loin 




% 



iVWk 



1. Nook. 

J. Chuck or fore-rib 

3. Breast. 

4. Flank. 

5. Loin. 

0. 1 



Fit.;. 30.— Diagrams of cuts of lamb. 




chops, however, have less bone and are tender and fine in 
flavor. Shoulder chops, when not too high in price and 
from a good animal, are very satisfactory. 

Breast and Flank. — In mutton the breast and flank are 
used for stewing, while the breast of lamb is used for both 
stewing and braising. 

Neck. — The neck of both lamb and mutton arc used 
for stews and broth, and. if lean and juicy, may be used for 
casseroles. 



MKATS 



111 



Saddle of Lamb or Mutton. — The saddle is formed by 
leaving the two loins joined together, the carcass not being 
split. This makes the finest of the mutton roasts. 

Crown of Lamb. This is formed by Trenching several 
of the rib chops, then fastening them together to form a 
circle. This is roasted and the center filled with vegetables 
before serving. 

190. Pork. — Pork is the flesh of the hog, and because of 




1. Head. 

2. Shoulder 

3. Back. 

4 Middle cut. 

5. Belly. 

6. Ham. 

7. Kibs. 

8. Loiu. 




Fig. 31. — Diagrams of cuts of pork. 



its indigestibility (owing to the large amount of fat present), 
and the possible presence of trichina or bladder worm, 
it is less desirable for food than the other meats. Good 
pork is pale red and the lean part is firm, while the fat is 
soft and oily. Pork should be thoroughly cooked, as this 
is the only way of killing any parasites that may be present. 
191. Internal Organs Used as Food. — The internal 
organs of animals used for food are : Brains; tongue; heart; 
kidneys; liver; sweetbreads; tripe. 



112 FOOD 

Brains are composed largely of fatty material, and, 
while very readily digested, are absorbed to such a small 
extent (43 per cent) as to make them of slight food value. 

Tongue. — While beef tongue is the one that is usually 
indicated when the word tongue is used, calf's tongue as well 
as lamb's is also used. The latter is usually sold pickled. 
Good tongue may he recognized by its thickness and firm- 
ness. There should he a plentiful supply o( fat on the under 
side. 

Heart is very much like ordinary meal in composition, 
hut being denser in structure it is difficult oi digestion unless 
made tender by very long cooking. 

Liver and Kidneys -Ave- very compact in structure and 
contain no connective tissue. They are considered difficult 
of digestion, and while they contain much protein, it is 
in a different form from that found in ordii ary meat. 

Sweetbreads, also mentioned under veal, page 109, are 
cellular in structure, the cells being held together by a loose, 
delicate connective tissue. On this account, they are among 
the most easily digested oi all animal foods. 

Tripe is the cleaned and boiled lining o'l the stomach 
y^( the href animal. It is largely composed of connective 
tissue. This may he changed by boiling into gelatin and so 
made very digestible. Tripe has considerable fat, hut owing 
to the absence o( extractives, has hut little flavor. 

192. Gelatin. Gelatin is obtained from bones, tendons, 
connective tissue, skin, and front calves' feet. A\ hen pure, 
gelatin has no odor or taste and is transparent ami spark- 
ling. 

Composition. Gelatin is something like protein in com- 
position and is very digestible. Unlike protein it is not 
capable of building tissue, hut is sometimes used as a pro- 
tein sparer because the body can make use oi it in the pro- 
duction of heat and energy, thus sparing the more valuable 
forms of protein. It is much more easily broken down 
than the other proteins. 



MEATS 113 

EXPERIMENTS 

Experiment 1. Effect of Cold Water upon Meat. — (a) Out raw 
beef into very small pieces and allow it to stand in cold water. Ob- 
serve the change in the color oi the water ami of the meat. Elxplain. 

(6) Strain off the water from {a) and heat it slowly in a glass beaker. 
Observe ami accounj for any change in color ami the presence of solid 
particles in the water. 

Experiment 2. Effect of Boiling Water upon Meat, -(a) Place 
small piece oi beef in a saucepan oi rapidly boiling water. Does the 
water change color as in the above experiment? Why? 

Account for the hard surface oi the meat, and the change 1 in color 
of the outside. 

Experiment 3. Effect of Nitric Acid on Beef Juice. Squeeze 
some of the juice from raw beef and add to it a small amount oi nitric 
acid. Account for the result. 

Experiment 4. Effect of Dry Heat upon Tough Meat. — Scrape a 
piece of raw beef until only the connective tissue remains. Place 
the tissue on a hissing hot pan and observe. Elxplain. 

Experiment 6. Effect of Slow Cooking in Water below the Boiling 
Point on Tough Meat. — Cook a small piece oi beef at 180° F. until the 
fibres can be torn apart. Explain the easy separation of the fibres. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

Cook tender meat: boil and pan broil steak and lamb chops. 
Cook tough meat; make soup stock, and brown stew. 
Use left-over meat in meat-pie. hash, and sandwiches. 



CHAPTER XIV 
POULTRY AND GAME 

193. Poultry. — The domestic birds used for food are 
chickens, fowls, turkeys, geese, ducks, guinea fowls, and 
pigeons. 

194. Game. — The more common wild birds and animals 
hunted for food are wild geese, wild ducks, quail, partridge, 
reed birds, squirrels, rabbits, and deer. 

195. Composition. — In poultry and game, as in all other 
flesh foods, protein and fat are the important nutrients. 
The white meat or breast of chicken and turkey, has practi- 
cally the same protein content but is poorer in fat than the 
dark meat. Also the flesh o( a young bird yields more 4 
protein and less fat than the flesh of a fowl. 

Poultry contains, pound tor pound, a little more of the 
building material needed by the body and less of the energy- 
giving materials than the red meats, beef and mutton. 
However, poultry compares favorably with meat in the 
amount of available nutrients furnished and is interchange- 
able with fish and meat in the diet. Chicken is the cheapest 
kind of poultry and in the matter of economy is comparable 
with the cheaper cuts of beef and mutton. It also offers 
an agreeable variety to the diet and should be used in place 
of meat or fish as the main course of the dinner. 

At the present time game animals and birds are con- 
sidered a luxury, and as such are not an important part of 
the food supply of the country. Game is considered best 
after it has hung for some time or until it may be called 
"high." 

196. Digestibility. — From the viewpoint of complete- 

ly 



POULTRY AND GAME 115 

ness of digestion, poultry and game may be rated with the 
other flesh foods. If considering the relative ease of diges- 
tion, chicken is more digestible than lean meat, while duck 
and goose, because of the larger percentage of fat, are on a 
par with pork. The light meat, or breast of chicken, is 
composed of shorter and more tender fibres, contains less 
connective tissue and usually less fat than the dark meat, 
such as leg muscles. For these reasons light meat is pre- 
ferable for children and persons having weak digestions. 

197. Selection. — The breed of fowl, as well as the sur- 
roundings and food, have an influence upon the economy, 
wholesomeness and quality of the flesh. Birds having 
plump breasts and rounded legs are more economical as well 
as better flavored than the large boned fowls bred for laying 
qualities alone. The flesh of poultry allowed to roam the 
fields and feed upon all kinds of food is inferior in flavor 
and quality to the flesh of chickens fed upon grain or pre- 
pared food. 

198. Picking. — The best grade of poultry is dry picked. 
Scalding is an easier way of removing the feathers, but by 
this method some of the flavor is lost, while from 8 to 10 
per cent of water is added for which the consumer must pay 
food prices. If the bird has been dry picked, the flesh 
is plump, the skin is flexible, and the fat on the breast is 
yellow. A scalded chicken has a smooth, tight-stretched 
skin, often rubbed in places, and the legs are hard to bend 
back. 

The animal heat should be removed as soon as the 
fowl is picked. This should be done by hanging in cool 
dry air for about twenty-four hours. Poultry should be 
shipped in refrigerator cars and kept cool and dry. 

199. Chickens. — Young and tender chicken may be 
recognized by smooth legs, a soft thin skin, and a flexible 
breast bone. Rough legs, heavy blunt claws, thick rough 
skin, and a hard breast bone all indicate age in a fowl. 

The season for broilers (chicken from two to four months 



116 FOOD 

old) is from May to October. Roasting chickens are in 
the market from September to December, inclusive. Those 
bought at other seasons are probably cold storage birds. 

200. Selecting Turkeys. — Turkeys under one year old 
have black feet, a thin skin, and a flexible breast bone. 
The season for fresh turkeys begins in November and ends 
in late February. Turkeys weighing from fourteen to 
twenty pounds are preferred to the larger and heavier 
birds. The choicest and finest turkeys in the market are 
dry picked, and are delivered without {jacking in ice. 

201. Ducks and Geese. — Spring ducks and geese begin 
to reach the markets in May and may be had until January. 
Old ducks and geese may be obtained any season of the year. 
White Pekin ducks are valued highly for table use. They 
weigh from six to eight pounds when at their best. Geese 
at sixteen to eight ecu pounds weight are considered prime. 

202. Squab. — Young pigeons, called squab, are prime 
for eating when about four weeks old. Eight pounds to 
the dozen is the standard weight for squab. They are most 
plentiful in the summer months, but may be obtained all 
the year around. 

Pigeons, which are rarely seen in the markets, are much 
cheaper than squab. The flesh of the pigeon requires 
special cooking to make it tender and palatable. 

203. Guinea Fowls. — Young guinea fowls are ready for 
market in the early fall. Old fowls arc in the market all 
winter. The flesh of the guinea fowl is darker in color 
than that of the common fowl, and the fibres arc shorter. 
The demand for guinea fowl for table use is increasing. In 
flavor the flesh resembles that of game birds. 

204. Preparation of Poultry. — The average housekeeper 
prefers to have her poultry drawn (i.e. internal organs 
removed) at the market. Directions for the proper pro- 
cedure may be found in any reliable cook book in case they 
are to be prepared at home. 

Boiling, stewing, roasting and broiling are the methods 



POULTRY AND GAME 117 

of cooking commonly used with poultry. In any method 
the heat of cooking develops the flavors, kills micro-organisms 
and produces changes which render the meat more appetiz- 
ing by improving the flavor and appearance. Long, slow 
cooking, which softens the muscle fibres and connective 
tissue, should be used with old and tough birds. Roasting 
and broiling are the methods of cooking employed for young 
and tender birds. In these processes the flesh is subjected 
to a high temperature at first in order to harden the protein 
near the surface. This forms a crust which prevents the 
further escape of the juices. After this crust has been 
formed, the temperature should be reduced to allow the heat 
to penetrate to the center without burning the outside. 
Frequent basting, or pouring the escaped juices over the 
roasting meat, helps to form a coating over the surface. 

In roasting poultry the cavity is usually filled with stuf- 
fing or dressing. This stuffing is a highly seasoned mixture 
which serves the purpose of seasoning the bird and keeping 
it in shape. Some chefs prefer to roast birds without 
stuffing, contending that the juices of the meat are drawn 
out by this dressing, leaving the white meat of the breast 
dry and lacking in flavor. 

A general rule for the roasting of chickens and turkeys 
is to allow twenty minutes to the pound for cooking. Ducks 
and geese, because of the amount of fat, require a longer 
time for the cooking process. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Stuff and roast fowl. 
Broil chicken. 
Fricassee of chicken. 
Fried chicken. 



CHAPTER XV 
FISH 

205. Quality and Flavor. — Fish, like moat, is a protein 
food, but unlike moat it is from one-third to two-thirds 
refuse and its flesh has a very large amount cf water. Fish 

may come from fresh or salt water; those of much sizo 
usually come from lakes and the ocean, those of medium 
sizo from rivers, and very small ones are obtained from 

brooks. 

The quality and flavor of fish depend upon various 
factors, chief of which are: The season, the kind of water 
in which they live, the substances upon which they feed, 
the method of capture and the way in which they are 
killed. 

.Most fish are best just before spawning, when they 
are said to be in season. During spawning, fish are likely 
to become flabby, with a few exceptions, such as shad and 
herring, which are at their best at such times. 

Fish that live in deep, clear, cool water with a rocky or 
sandy bottom are superior to those that live in warm, 
shallow water having a muddy bottom. Fish which feed 
upon Crustacea and plant substance are preferable to those 
which feed upon sewage products. 

Fish should be killed immediately upon being removed 
from the water, for if allowed to die slowly, rapid decom- 
position results. 

206. Composition. — While fish resembles meat in com- 
position and contains the same foodstuffs, there is a dif- 
ference in the amounts present. The flesh of meat has 
a much higher percentage of fat than that of fish. The 

US 



FISH 119 

form of protein known as collagen (a substance which yields 
gelatin on boiling) exists in greater abundance in fish 
than in meat. Fish, unlike meat, is deficient in extractives 
and haemoglobin, which explains the absence of flavor and 
color in this food. Mineral matter is present to the extent 
of about 5 per cent, and occurs in the form of phosphates 
of potash and lime with some sodium chloride. As most 
fish lack carbohydrates, they should be eaten in combination 
with some starchy food. 

207. Digestibility. — Fish is supposed to be more easily 
digested than meat, doubtless due to the fact that the 
fibres are short and easily separated. Those kinds con- 
taining the smallest amount of fat are the most digestible. 
The accumulation of uric acid in the system is apt to be 
much less on a fish than on a meat diet. 

208. Choosing Fish. — While the ideal way is to keep 
fish alive in pools of cool water until just before cooking, 
this unfortunately is usually impossible. Most market 
fish are packed in ice after having been killed, and so kept 
until sold. Cold storage fish are frozen solid and kept in 
this condition until sold. Just how much this treatment 
affects the taste and wholesomeness of the fish has not yet 
been determined, but fish so treated, if not cooked immedi- 
ately after thawing, are very likely to develop ptomaines. 
In choosing fish see that the eyes are full and bright, the 
gills red, the flesh firm and stiff with no disagreeable 
odor. 

209. Cooking. — Any method of cooking which is appli- 
cable to meat may also be applied to fish. The sooner 
fish is cooked after it is caught the finer the flavor. Boiling 
is considered the least economical method of cooking fish, 
as experiment has shown that when so cooked the loss in 
weight is between 5 and 30 per cent. If vinegar or other 
acid is added to the wMer in which fish is boiled, the protein 
hardens more quickly and the fish is prevented from falling 
apart. Fish is cooked sufficiently when the flesh becomes 



120 FOOD 

dry and opaque and separates easily from the bone. Serving 
fish with lemon or some piquant sauce improves its flavor 
and makes it acceptable to man)' who otherwise find it 
tasteless and insipid. 

210. Preserving.— Large quantities of fish are preserved 
by canning, drying, smoking, and salting. The methods 
of canning have now reached such a degree of perfection 
that much of the original flavor of the fish is retained. 
Canned fish is economical, as the greater part of the refuse 
has been removed before canning. 

Dried fish usually loses about 30 per cent of its water 
during the process of drying. Pound for pound therefore, 
it is more nutritious than fresh fish. 

211. Common Food Fish. — Fish are sometimes classified 
according to the amount of fat which they contain. 

(1) Those containing more than 5 per cent of fat are: 
salmon, shad, herring, Spanish mackerel, and butter fish. 

(2) Those containing between 2 and 5 per cent of fat are: 
white fish, mackerel, mullet, halibut, and porgy. 

(3) Those containing less than 2 per cent of fat are: 
smelts, black bass, blue fish, hake, flounder, yellow perch, 
pike, pickerel, sea bass, cod and haddock. 

212. Specially Prepared Fish. — Sardiyies, so named 
because they were first found off the coast of Sardinia, 
belong to the herring family and sometimes small herrings 
are substituted for them. Sardines are used fresh in Europe 
but only canned in oil in the United States. 

Sturgeon known as white or Oregon sturgeon are found 
on the Pacific coast. Some are very large and until quite 
recently were appreciated only for their eggs or roe, from 
which caviar is made. Caviar is prepared by removing the 
eggs from the fish, then rubbing them to separate them 
and remove the membrane which envelops them. A certain 
amount of salt is then added, the first effect of which is to 
dry the eggs, but after a time the salt draws the water 
from the eggs and forms a brine. This brine is poured off 



FISH 



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122 FOOD 

and the eggs are allowed to drain from eight to twenty hours 
after which they are put in cans. The caviar is prized for 
its flavor and for its food value, which is about the same as 
that of the fish itself. In the roe is found lecithin which is 
a phosphorized fat. 

213. Unusual Types of Fish Tested and Recommended 
by the Bureau of Fisheries. — Burbet. — This fish, though 
little known, belongs to the same family as the cod and is 
the only one of that family which is found in fresh water. 
The flesh is firm, white and fine in flavor, and as it comes 
to the market skinned, dressed, and without the head, it 
may be considered a very cheap food. 

Bow fin. — This is very good smoked and salted. 

Catfish. — While not generally appreciated catfish has 
been found to have a very high calorific value as food. 
One pound of it yields eleven hundred calories. 

Sablefish. — Sablefish is sometimes called black cod. This 
fish is fine in texture and of delicious flavor. Although it 
comes from the deep waters of the Pacific, it can be very 
successfully shipped, and so can be obtained frozen as far 
east as New England. 

Gray fish. — Gray fish is now appearing fresh in all markets 
along the coast but it is very good canned or smoked, and 
may be so obtained anywhere. 

Tile fish were first discovered off the coast of Nantucket, 
in 1879, but while its food value was being determined and 
before it could be placed upon the market, it was completely 
exterminated, supposedly by a sudden chilling of the waters 
brought about by the receding of the Gulf Stream. With 
the return of this current some years later, the fish again 
appeared, and it is hoped that with an increasing knowledge 
of its great food value, its abundance at all seasons, and the 
ease with which it is captured, it may now become of great 
importance in the fresh fish market. 

214. Shell Fish. — Under the general name of shell fish 
are included: 



FISH 123 

(a) The mollusks. — Oysters, clams, scallops, and mussels. 

(b) The crustaceans. — Lobsters, crabs, and shrimps. 
Shell fish, like other fish, are used as a source of protein 

in the diet. Unlike the others they contain the carbo- 
hydrate substance glycogen which somewhat increases their 
food value. They are expensive, and with few exceptions 
are difficult of digestion. 

215. Oysters. — Oysters, which are perhaps the most 
used of the shell fish, are found in salt water. They vary 
in size according to the variety, and are not eaten until 
they are at least two years old. Oysters were formerly 
named from the locality from which they came but that 
custom no longer prevails. For example, Blue Points were 
originally a small variety which came from Long Island, 
New York. Now any small variety not measuring more 
than two or two and a half inches is commonly so-called. 
Saddle rock is a name given to very large oysters. 

Season oysters are at their best from September to May 
on the Atlantic coast. They should be eaten as soon as 
they are removed from the shell. The practice of opening 
large quantities at a time and keeping them in tubs until 
purchased is to be deplored. 

Floated oysters are those that have been treated with 
fresh water in order to increase their size. They usually 
lose flavor by this treatment, owing to the loss of some of 
their natural salts. There is danger also of their being 
contaminated. 

While oysters are more easily digested when eaten without 
cooking the ease with which they transmit disease germs 
makes this a dangerous practice. Slight cooking is advisable. 
Long cooking toughens the oyster and renders it indigestible. 

216. Clams. — There are two varieties of clams, the 
long, or soft clams, always used in the famous New England 
clambake, and the round, or hard clam, usually to be found 
in the markets south of New York. 

Little Neck clams are a very small round variety noted 



124 FOOD 

for their fine flavor. They are usually eaten raw and take 
the place of oysters when the latter are not in season. The 
composition of clams is about the same as that of other fish 
but many people find difficulty in digesting them. 

217. Mussels. — Mussels resemble oysters, but the shell 
is smoother and they are found in fresh water. They are 
not very palatable and are not extensively used. 

218. Lobsters. — Lobster is highly prized for its sweet 
flavor which is due to the large amount of glycogen that it 
contains. It is very expensive, as about 50 per cent of it 
is refuse, and is considered indigestible mainly on account 
of the coarseness and density of its fibres. 

219. Crabs. — Crabs are classified as hard shelled and 
soft shelled. Soft shelled crabs are those which have recently 
shed their shell. The flesh of the crab is more delicate 
than the flesh of the lobster. 

220. Shrimps. — Shrimps are high in food value, one- 
fourth their weight being made up of protein. The tail is 
the only portion eaten. They are usually used canned. 

221. Terrapin. — Terrapin is a turtle-like reptile found 
in the salt water of bays and lagoons. It is valuable for 
the delicacy of its flesh as well as for its fine flavor and 
digestibility. It is scarce and very expensive. The diamond 
back is considered the choicest variety. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Broil mackerel; bake bluefish; boil cod; make clam chowder; 
scallop oysters, fry scallops. 

Prepare hollandaise, tartar, and egg sauce. 



CHAPTER XVI 
MINERAL MATTER 

222. Definition. — The term mineral matter or ash is 
applied to those substances found in food that are produced 
by the combination of the elements calcium, phosphorus, 
iron, sodium, potassium, magnesium, chlorine, silica, iodine, 
and flourine with food materials. 

223. Function in Body. — These substances are essential 
as body builders and as body regulators. In the first instance 
they — especially the compounds of calcium — furnish the 
very important elements which enter into the formation 
of the bones, teeth, hair, and nails. In the absence of these 
elements the bones lose their rigidity and the muscles lack 
the ability to contract. 

As body regulators mineral substances are particularly 
valuable to certain fluids of the body, notably the blood, 
which owes to the iron in the haemoglobin its power of 
holding oxygen and conveying it to other tissues in the 
body. To the presence of calcium the blood owes its power 
of coagulation. The blood, as well as other tissue depends 
primarily upon these mineral substances, for alkalinity. 
In experiments to determine the effect upon the body of an 
ash-free diet (that is a diet of fats, carbohydrates and protein 
from which all mineral matter has been extracted), it was 
found that, in the absence of the bases or alkaline salts of 
the usual ash containing diet, the mineral acids resulting 
from the oxydation of food as well as from the body meta- 
bolism, were neutralized so slowly that the abnormal con- 
dition known as acidosis resulted. The solvent power 
and the power of osmosis (ability to pass through an animal 

125 



126 FOOD 

membrane) possessed by many fluids of the body, depends 
upon the presence of these mineral substances. 

224. Sources of Mineral Matter. — The mineral sub- 
stances required by the body are usually found in combina- 
tion with other foodstuffs and, as a rule, pass into the blood 
unchanged by digestion. It is difficult to fix the exact 
amount of mineral matter required daily, but a well-known 
authority states that only three forms need special con- 
sideration. These are calcium, iron, and phosphorus. 
Other forms of mineral matter probably occur in sufficient 
quantities in any intelligently planned diet. 

Calcium. — The body contains about 2 per cent of cal- 
cium which should be maintained by the food. The mini- 
mum amount required daily is 0.7 gram for an adult. A 
larger amount should be supplied in the food of a growing 
child to furnish material for the growth of bones and teeth. 
Calcium helps in the utilization of iron and has been called 
the "body's great harmonizer." 

Iron. — The body of average weight contains approxi- 
mately 3 grams of iron. This should be furnished in organic 
form, as it is only the iron in food that can be utilized in 
building body tissue. Iron in inorganic or medicinal form 
has been found to act only as a stimulant in aiding the 
body to manufacture haemoglobin from food iron. It is, 
therefore, effective only when combined with foods having 
a high iron content. Iron is more necessary in the diet of 
women and children than in that of men. 

Phosphorus. — The approximate amount of phosphorus 
required daily is 4 grams furnished in different compounds. 
The appearance of this element as phosphorized fat in the 
brain has probably led to the erroneous belief that foods 
rich in phosphorus are essentially brain foods. 

Sodium Chloride, or common salt, is the only form of 
mineral matter usually added directly to the food. Often 
more is used than is necessary or advisable. Salt helps in 
the production of the hydrochloric acid of the stomach, 



MINERAL MATTER 127 

stimulates the appetite, and produces the thirst which 
encourages the drinking of more water than many would 
otherwise take. 

TABLE XL— FOODS RICH IN MINERAL MATTER 

Weight in ounces of 100 calorie portion 

Almonds \ oz. 

Beans (dried) 1 oz. 

Beef (lean) 2\ oz. 

Carrots 7f oz. 

Cheese (cottage) 3| oz. 

Chocolate \ oz. 

Egg yolk 1 oz. (2 yolks) 

Lentils 1 oz. 

Milk (whole) 5 oz. 

Oatmeal 1 oz. 

Peanuts \ oz. 

Prunes lj oz. 

Raisins 1 oz. 

Salmon \\ oz. 

Spinach 14f oz. 

Turnips 9 oz. 

Whole wheat \\ oz. 

Lettuce I82 oz. 

4 

225. Vitamines. — The name vitamines, meaning "essen- 
tial to life," has been given to a group of substances about 
which little is definitely known. Attention was first directed 
to these substances when it was shown experimentally that 
artificial mixtures of the chemical compounds, no matter 
how scientifically selected and combined, failed to promote 
growth in young animals, but that, by adding to these 
compounds minute quantities of such foods as egg yolk, 
milk, butter and cereals, growth was at once stimulated 
and proceeded in a normal way. This led to the belief 
that there must be in natural food something besides pro- 
tein, fat carbohydrate, mineral matter and water. 

The form in which these vitamines exist is still a matter 
of doubt. Some authorities hold that, as they exist in 



128 FOOD 

combination with fats, they are themselves of a lipoid or 
fatty nature. Others claim that the fat may serve only 
the purpose of holding them until called for by the body. 

226. Function of Vitamines in the Body. — One form of 
these vitamines, which has been found to be soluble in fat, 
has a direct effect upon body growth. This form is present 
in the fat of milk, eggs, butter, cod liver oil, muscle fat, 
and in smaller amount in such cereal germs as those of 
oats, rice, corn, and wheat. 

A second form, which is found to be soluble in water 
and alcohol, is supposed to have some marked effect upon 
nerve tissue and nerve activity. This form is found in eggs, 
meat, milk, and the outer layers, of bran, wheat, rice, 
corn, and oats. 

While these vitamines are required only in small amounts, 
their absence has a disastrous effect upon the process of 
nutrition. Therefore, foods treated in such a way as to 
diminish their vitamine content should not be depended 
upon exclusively for nourishment. Such processes as can- 
ning, drying, boiling (in some cases, as for example milk), 
as well as long keeping and too great refining diminish 
the vitamines. 



CHAPTER XVII 
BEVERAGES 

Besides water there are a number of beverages which 
are taken mainly for their pleasant flavor and stimulating 
effect. Tea, coffee, chocolate, and cocoa belong to this 
class. 

227. Tea. — Tea is made from the leaves and buds of a 










Fig. 32.— Tea plant. (Bailey.) 

species of evergreen shrub, Fig. 32, which grows from 3 to 6 
feet in height. The cultivation of the tea plant is an im- 
portant industry in China, Japan, India, and Ceylon. It 
promises to become a considerable factor in the industries 
of the Southern States, where the climate is fairly well 
suited to the growth of tropical plants. 

228. Composition of Tea. — The chemical constituents 
of tea are found to be principally an alkaloid, formerly 
called theine, but now known as caffein, and said to be 

129 



130 FOOD 

identical with the same substance found in coffee, tannin, 
certain volatile oils, and mineral matter in the form of 
oxalates. 

Caffein is mildly stimulating to the nerves and is easily 
dissolved in boiling water. 

Tannin, an astringent substance found also in certain 
fruits and vegetables, is less easily dissolved in boiling 
water. Upon this fact depends the principle of tea infusion. 

229. Classes of Tea. — There are two general classes of 
tea, black and green. The two kinds may be made from 
the same leaves, the main difference being in the process 
of curing. 

Black tea is prepared by allowing the loaves to stand 
and ferment before they arc dried. This changes the color 
and flavor and renders the tannin less soluble. An infusion 
of green tea therefore contains more tannin than a like 
infusion of black tea. 

Green tea is made by drying the leaves quickly while yet 
fresh. A green tea infusion has a pale color and a less 
pungent odor. 

230. Grades of Tea. — The choice brands of tea are 
made from the very young buds and leaves. The older 
and larger leaves form the less desirable and cheaper quali- 
ties. The finest quality of China tea is flowery pecoe, made 

from the leaf buds. The 

f /l^0^~ K-\ ?~^% next larger leaves form orange 

\Jf -fe^"' pecoe, the still older and 

^{fj^Sbt: ,,T •■■-.•, • .^J^ larger leaves pecoe, and the 

^|L largest leaves a still lower 

\)i grade called souchong. 

^> 231. Adulterants of Tea. 

Fig. 33.— Tea leaf. _ An of the tea shipped into 

this country is tested before it is distributed to make sure 
that it comes up to the prescribed standard of purity. 
Coloring matters are sometimes used to improve the appear- 
ance of the tea leaves. These are also frequently used on 



BEVERAGES 



131 



spent leaves, or tea that has been infused, to give it the 
appearance of fresh leaves. Probably the usual way of 
adulterating tea is by the addition of foreign leaves or 
leaves resembling the tea leaf in size and shape. The 
expert can detect these upon close examination, for the 




Courtesy oj Bleeckers & Simon. 

Fig. 34.— Coffee plant. 

veining and midrib of the tea leaf are peculiar to this partic- 
ular plant, see Fig. 33. 

232. Coffee. — Coffee is the fruit of a shrub or tree 
which under cultivation grows from 7 to 16 feet in height. 
The fruit, Fig. 34, resembles a cherry, the beans correspond- 
ing to the pit. Two beans grow, flat sides together, in the 
pulp, enclosed in a tough hull. The fruit is dried and the 
husk removed from the berries. 



132 FOOD 

The coffee growing countries rank, according to the 
amount produced, as follows : 

(1) Brazil, which furnishes more than half of the world's 
supply. 

(2) Mexico and Central America. 

(3) Africa and Arabia. 

(4) Asia. 

Caffein and tannin, mentioned under tea, are equally 
important constituents of coffee. In addition to these and 
of equal importance, may be considered the volatile oil 
caffeol, which imparts to coffee its characteristic flavor and 
aroma. 

233. Mocha and Java Coffee. — The terms Mocha and 
Java no longer indicate the source of the coffee, but 
are simply trade names signifying the quality of the 
blend. 

234. Preparation of Coffee. — For use as a beverage, the 
coffee beans must first be roasted and then ground. The 
degree of fineness to which they should be ground depends 
upon the method of preparing the beverage. In finely 
ground coffee the cells are opened and the aromatic oils 
are dissolved by boiling water. It is generally maintained 
that the longer coffee beans are kept before roasting the 
better, but that after the roasting and grinding processes 
take place the flavor escapes in the air and the mixture 
deteriorates rapidly. Hence, when possible, it is desirable 
to roast only small quantities at a time and to grind only 
for immediate use. Roasting develops the caffeol and 
must be done with care to prevent the burning of the smaller 
or more immature berries. When this occurs, a bitter taste 
is imparted to the whole mixture. 

235. Substitutes and Adulterants for Coffee. — Chief 
among the coffee substitutes are the cereal coffees of which 
Postiim is typical. Kaffee Hag and de Koffer are both prep- 
arations of the coffee bean after the greater part of the 
caffein has been extracted. It is believed that these prepara- 



BEVERAGES 



133 



cocoa are 



tions may be used safely by persons unable to stand the 
stimulating effect of true coffee. 

Chicory is the common adulterant of coffee, although 
dried peas, beans, and grains are added to ground coffee 
to increase the amount. The inferior beans are also coated 
or glazed with substances that will improve their appear- 
ance. 

236. Chocolate and Cocoa. — Chocolate and 
made from the cocoa bean, which 
is the seed of a native Central 
American tree. The fruit of the 
cocoa tree, Fig. 35, grows about 
10 inches long and 4 inches thick 
and has imbedded in the pulp 20 
to 40 seeds about the size of ordi- 
nary almonds. When the fruit- 
matures, these seeds are removed 
and dried by the heat of the sun. 
The next step in the manufac- 
ture of chocolate is that of roast- 
ing and the removing of the 
shells. After this is done the 
beans are coarsely crushed to 

form cocoa nibs. The nibs are ground extremely fine, form- 
ing a thick paste which, when allowed to cool, hardens 
into a firm mass or cake. 

Cocoa is the finely ground form of chocolate after most 
of the fat has been removed by pressure. 

Chocolate and cocoa contain a stimulating principle 
closely related to caffein although milder in action, called 
theobromin. In addition to quite a high percentage of fat, 
the cocoa bean contains about 15 per cent of starch, a small 
amount of protein, and mineral matter. These give choco- 
late and cocoa a distinct food value. The fat, when 
extracted, is known as cocoa butter and is used in toilet 
preparations. 




35. — Cocoa beans. 



134 FOOD 

237. Effects of Tea, Coffee and Cocoa on the Body. — 

The food value of tea and coffee is due to the cream and 
sugar added rather than to the nutrients found in these 
compounds. 

The exciting and stimulating effect of tea, coffee, and 
cocoa is due to the caffein or similar compounds present. 
A cup of hot tea, by its agreeable flavor and stimulating 
action upon the body, dispels the feeling of fatigue. This 
stimulating effect upon the heart, kidneys, and nervous 
system varies with different people. In some cases the 
reaction of the stimulant is not noticeable, in others the 
action of the heart is increased very perceptibly. This 
increased action of the heart has a direct effect upon the 
secretions of the cells of the kidneys. 

Tannic acid in excessive amounts precipitates the 
pepsin of the gastric juice. This interferes with the diges- 
tion of protein foods. The small amounts of tannic acid 
occurring in properly made tea and coffee can do no more 
than to retard the digestive process. In some cases this 
might be desirable. For example a cup of black coffee after a 
hearty dinner delays the action of the juices upon protein 
foods and at the same time allows others to be digested 
in the normal manner. 

The volatile oils of tea and coffee affect the body in 
slightly different ways. Those in the former tend to open 
the pores of the skin and keep the body moist, while those 
of the latter tend to have the opposite action. This explains 
why tea is given to warm the body when cold, by increasing 
the circulation, and to cool it when heated by increasing 
the surface evaporation. 

Such beverages as chocolate and cocoa have a definite 
nutritive value in themselves, which is increased materially 
by the milk, cream, and sugar used in their preparation. 
The mild action of the stimulating principle theobromin 
makes cocoa a more desirable drink for children. Tea and 
coffee, because of their irritating effect upon the delicate 



BEVERAGES 135 

mucous membrane of the digestive tract and their stimulat- 
ing action upon the heart and nervous system, are con- 
sidered most harmful to young persons. 

EXPERIMENTS 

Experiment 1. Test for the Presence of Chicory in Coffee. — Add 

one teaspoonful of the ground suspected coffee to a glass of cold water. 
If chicory is present, it will make a brown streak as it sinks to the 
bottom of the glass. 

Experiment 2. To Detect Coffee Substitutes. — (a) Add a table- 
spoonful of the ground coffee to a glass of water and note the length of 
time it remains on top of the water. Coffee will float for some time, 
as it contains a little oil. Coffee substitutes are heavier than the 
coffee and quickly sink to the bottom of the glass. 

(6) Many of the substitutes contain starch, which gives the char- 
acteristic blue test with iodine. Boil one tablespoonful of coffee in one 
cup of water for three minutes. Filter and cool, and then add a few 
drops of iodine. The appearance of a blue color indicates the presence 
of starch. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter, 
prepare : 

Tea and coffee. 
Fruit punches. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
CONDIMENTS AND OTHER FOOD ACCESSORIES 

238. Value. — Condiments and other food accessories 
do not, as a rule, have a definite food value. That is, they 
do not supply building material or furnish energy to the 
body, although they may be considered body regulating 
substances in that they stimulate the flow of the digestive 
juices. For this reason they may be, counted as essential 
constituents of the normal diet. Many foods, otherwise 
insipid, are made palatable by the addition of simple con- 
diments to produce a pleasing flavor. 

239. Salt. — Salt is probably the only condiment that is 
absolutely necessary for the maintenance of health. Salt 
is obtained in various ways, chiefly by mining rock salt 
or by pumping brine out of salt wells, salt lakes, or the ocean, 
and evaporating it in the sun. This crude product is refined 
for use. About nine-tenths of the large yearly output of 
this country comes from New York, Michigan, Kansas 
and Ohio. 

It has been demonstrated by experiments that high 
grade or dairy salt is nearly pure (97 to 99 per cent) sodium 
chloride. For table use, salt is frequently mixed with 
starch or some other substance to keep it from gathering 
moisture from the air. In this event the product should 
be and usually is labeled to show this addition. 

240. Vinegar. — Vinegar is one of the most useful of the 
unclassified foods. Its flavor is stimulating and its action 
in softening the fibres of tough meat and the tough cellulose 
of green vegetables is illustrated in the use of vinegar in 
preparing mint sauce for lamb, and in French dressing to 
be eaten with salad. 

136 



CONDIMENTS AND OTHER FOOD ACCESSORIES 137 

The original term "vinegar," meaning only a wine 
product, has come to have a broader meaning and to include 
the cider, malt, and sugar products. 

Cider vinegar is made from the juice of apples. This 
ferments on standing and produces acetic acid. Cider 
vinegar is yellow or brownish in color and has the odor of 
apples. It also contains the malic acid of the apple juice. 

Wine vinegar is a similar product made from the juice 
of grapes. For table use white wine vinegar, from the 
white grape, is considered superior to the red, which is 
made from the juice of the purple grape. Tartaric acid, 
the characteristic acid product of the grape, is found in 
wine vinegars. 

Sugar vinegar is the result of the fermentation of sugar, 
syrup, or molasses solutions. 

241. Spices. — Most spices owe their characteristic taste 
and odor to the presence of some one of the volatile oils. 
Since their chief effect is to stimulate the appetite, their use 
is not advised in the diet of children. 

Ground spice is more often adulterated than whole spice. 
The detection of finely ground foreign matter, such as 
flour or other starchy or fibrous materials, is rather difficult 
in the ground products. Whole spices are frequently 
adulterated by removing a part of the important constituents 
of the berries. 

Allspice is the dried fruit of an evergreen tree grown 
in the West Indies. The berries are gathered when full 
grown but while they are still green. Allspice receives its 
name from its resemblance in taste to a mixture of ground 
cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. 

Anise is the seed of a plant of the parsley family native 
to Africa but now cultivated elsewhere. It is used in breads 
and other foods. 

Bay Leaf is the dried aromatic leaf of a species of laurel. 

Capers are the dried flower buds of the caper plant. This 
bush, a native of Southern Europe, grows from 3 to 5 feet 



138 FOOD 

in height. The flower buds are gathered when about the 
size of a pea and are preserved by pickling in vinegar. 

Celery seeds obtained from the common plant are used 
'as a seasoning substance either ground or in the form of an 
extract. 

Cinnamon is the inner bark of a small tree grown in 
Ceylon. It has an agreeable odor and flavor and is used as 
a medicine as well as a flavoring matter. 

Cloves are the dried flower buds of the clove tree, an 
evergreen grown in the West Indies and other places. 

Ginger is the starchy root of a plant of Southern Asia. 
Ginger is, therefore, a food as well as a condiment. The 
rhizome, or underground stem, is dried and sold as root 
ginger, or ground finely, for powdered ginger. The young 
roots are sometimes cooked and preserved in syrup for the 
preserved ginger of the market, or crystallized by boiling 
in sugar. 

Nutmeg is the dried seed of the fruit of the nutmeg tree. 
The unground nut is commonly used, the spice grated into 
the food as desired. It is preferred in this way since it 
loses flavor readily when ground. 

Mace is obtained from the surrounding membrane of the 
nutmeg. 

Pepper is the berry of a climbing plant found in tropical 
climates. Black pepper is the ground berry before it ripens. 
White pepper the ground berry after it ripens. 

Cayenne pepper is made from the pod of a species of 
Capsicum. It is a strong irritant to the skin and mucous 
membrane. 

Paprika is the ground ripe fruit of the capsicum, the 
seeds and stems having been carefully removed before 
grinding. 

Mustard is obtained from the seeds of the black or white 
mustard plant. Mustard grows wild in some localities 
and is also extensively cultivated. The white mustard 
seeds are sometimes used whole in pickles and relishes. 



CONDIMENTS AND OTHER FOOD ACCESSORIES 139 

Prepared mustard is made by grinding the seeds and mixing 
with other spices and oils or vinegar. Ground mustard, 
when applied to the skin, acts as a counter irritant and is 
often useful in relieving acute pain. 

Sage is a common garden plant, the dried leaves of 
which are used extensively in the preparation of sausage, 
and as a seasoning for other meats, poultry, and dressings 
of various kinds. 

Thyme is a perennial plant growing in the form of a 
small shrub 6 to 10 inches high. The leaves and young 
shoots are used for seasoning purposes. 

242. Flavoring Extracts. — Of the relatively large num- 
ber of flavoring extracts made, the extracts of vanilla, lemon, 
and almond are the ones universally used. 

Vanilla extract is made from the vanilla bean, which 
is the fruit of a climbing vine belonging to the orchid family. 
Those grown in Mexico are considered of a superior quality. 
The beans are allowed to ferment before drying to develop 
the characteristic properties. The extract which is sold for 
flavoring purposes is made by soaking the beans in alcohol. 
This fact accounts for the loss of flavor by evaporation, 
especially in hot foods. 

Lemon extract is obtained by soaking lemon peel in 
alcohol, which extracts the volatile oil needed as a flavoring 
substance. 

Almond extract is a flavoring substance prepared by soak- 
ing the seed of the bitter almond in alcohol. 



CHAPTER XIX 
FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY 

243. Necessity for Food. — The body requires food in 
definite quantities for three well-defined purposes: (1) To 
furnish energy; (2) to provide material for growth and 
repair; (3) to satisfy its need for those substances which 
stimulate growth and regulate body processes. 

244. Amount Required. — Several factors determine the 
amount of food required daily for a given individual, but 
the chief ones are age, weight, and activity of the body. 

To estimate the amount of food necessary to fulfill the 
first requirement, that of supplying energy, should be no 
more difficult than to estimate the amount of gasoline which 
an engine will use in running a certain number of miles. 
As the fuel value of food is reckoned in terms of a unit known 
as the calorie, it is most essential to know exactly what is 
meant by the term. As the number of calories required 
will vary with the body weight and the degree of activity, 
it will be necessary to know how many calories per pound 
of body weight, per day, will be used under these varying 
conditions. And finally, as the calories are yielded by the 
oxidizable foodstuffs such as protein, fat, and carbohydrates, 
it will be necessary to know the proportion of these present 
in the food materials, and to know how many calories a 
given amount of each will yield. 

By a calorie is meant that amount of heat which will raise 
the temperature of one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit. 

The number of calories required by an adult has been 
found by scientific experiments to approximate the fol- 
lowing: 

140 



FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF THE BODY 141 

At rest 13 to 14 calories per lb., per day. 

At light exercise 16 to 18 calories per lb., per day. 

At moderate exercise 18 to 20 calories per lb., per day. 

At severe exercise 20 to 23 calories per lb., per day. 

Using the above data, it will be seen that a person 
weighing 150 lbs. and taking no exercise will require 150X14 
or 2100 calories per day. The same person exercising 
severely will require as high as 150X23 or 3450 calories per 
day. 

245. Computation cf Energy Value cf Foods. — The 
necessary information regarding the proportion, in terms of 
grams, of the foodstuffs in various food materials, may 
readily be obtained from any of the Government Bulletins- 
As each of these foodstuffs yields a certain number of 
calories, the protein and carbohydrates yielding 4 calories 
per gram, and the fat yielding 9 calories per gram, the total 
calories, furnished by a given amount of food may readily 
be computed. 

Example. — To determine the total energy in calories furnished by 
one pound of white bread. One pound of white bread contains 41.27 
grams of protein, 7.26 grams of fat, and 241.75 grams of carbohydrates. 
The energy furnished is therefore: 

By the protein, 41.27X4= 165.08 calories 

By the fat, 7.26X9= 64.35 calories 

By the carbohydrate, 241.75X4= 967.00 calories 

Total energy 1197.42 calories 

246. Requirement for Growth and Repair. — The second 
requirement is often spoken of as the "protein requirement 
of the body, as it is upon protein that the body chiefly 
depends for growth and repair may also be estimated in 
terms of calories. One way of making certain that this 
protein requirement is met is to see that from one-eighth to 
one-tenth the total calories of the day's rations are derived 
from protein foods. Another way is to allow from 2 to 3 



142 FOOD 

protein calories for each pound of body weight for an adult, 
and from 4 to 6 protein calories per pound of body weight 
for a growing child. 

247. Requirement for Body Regulation. — To satisfy the 
body's third requirement, that is, its need of growth stimula- 
ting and process-regulating substances, is, at the present 
time, by no means a definite, well understood task. All 
that can be done along this line, in the light of present 
investigations, is to make an intelligent use of all foods. 
In this way a sufficient quantity of these substances to 
meet the needs of the body is reasonably well assured. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the text of the previous chapter each pupil 
should calculate her own food requirement per day. 

Weigh and compare the 100 calorie portion of several of the common 
food materials. 



CHAPTER XX 

FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 

The food requirements of the body have been defined 
in the previous chapter. In the present chapter the ques- 
tion of the combinations of foods that will meet these 
requirements will be discussed. 

248. Planning Meals. — Planning satisfying meals in- 
volves, first of all, a definite idea of the family income and 
of what part of this can properly be appropriated for feeding 
the family. 

The wise expenditure of money thus set aside falls upon 
the housekeeper. The degree of success she will achieve 
in her efforts will depend upon her knowledge of the body 
needs of each individual under her care and of the kinds 
of foods that will best supply these needs. She must know 
the seasons at which various food supplies are most plentiful, 
and therefore best and cheapest, and how to select, prepare, 
and serve them in an attractive manner. By satisfying 
meals is meant meals that satisfy hunger and please the 
taste, as well as meet the body requirements. 

249. Per Cent of Income to be Set Aside. — Catering 
for a group of normal adults with all necessity for considering 
the cost of food eliminated would be a comparatively simple 
task. But the present pressure upon the economic side, 
due to the high cost of the staple foods, is forcing the house- 
keeper to exercise the greatest care and judgment in the 
expenditure of the food allowance. Just what percentage 
of the income this allowance should be, depends upon many 
things, but chiefly upon the amount of the income. The 
smaller the yearly income, the higher the percentage that 

143 



144 



FOOD 




Photo by Paul Thompson 

Fig. 36. 



FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 145 

must be allowed for food. It has been estimated that, 
in normal times, 25 per cent of an income of between $1500 
and $2000 will furnish adequate nourishment for the average 
family. 

250. The Food of Adults and of Children.— From the 
standpoint of nutrition, the planning of meals resolves itself 
into something more complicated than the mere satisfying 
of hunger. The housekeeper must take into consideration 
the age and growth needs of the children and the occupation 
and amount of exercise taken b} r each member of the family, 
in order to be able adequately to judge the kind and amount 
of food required by each. The man at active muscular 
work will use up more calories than the man of sedentary 
habits, and will be able to digest with ease the heartier foods. 
Children require special attention with regard to the supply 
of growth stimulating foods. It is an established fact that 
a man can dispense with such foods as eggs, milk, cream, 
and butter better than the women and children of the 
family. 

251. The Cost of Foods. — Important considerations in 
planning meals are the cost not only of the raw food materials 
but of the fuel consumed, and the time and labor required 
in their preparation. 

The problem of the cost of living is becoming more and 
more serious every year. Whatever the reason for the 
increase in the price of food, it is quite certain that former 
low prices will not be restored. Fuel is more expensive. 
Wages of domestic help are higher. Apparently the only 
way by which to combat these conditions is through more 
careful and intelligent buying. By studying market con- 
ditions cheaper foods, equally wholesome and identical in 
nutritive value, may be substituted for high priced foods. 

Judicious buying implies a knowledge of the different 
cuts of meat and their possibilities, and the ability to dis- 
tinguish between waste (bone and gristle) and solid meat. 
Judgment in buying staple goods in quantities whenever 



146 FOOD 

possible, and in buying perishable goods in season, as well 
as an understanding of their value and place in the diet, 
is gained by study and experience. This knowledge and 
experience may be possessed by every housewife who is 
willing to expend the necessary time and effort. 

False economy in food results in a poorly nourished 
family, the members- of which are readily susceptible to 
disease because their resisting powers are not kept high 
by proper nourishment. It should be remembered that 
money saved on food is often spent on doctor's bills. 

252. Balanced Meals. — To so plan each meal as to supply 
a definitely prescribed amount of each foodstuff is an impos- 
sible task. The one time much over-worked term, "bal- 
anced meals," has therefore lost its implied meaning of 
furnishing the correct proportion of the foodstuffs for each 
meal. In its newer and broader sense, the term signifies 
providing a well-selected variety of foods which will furnish 
a well-rounded diet. In the course of the day such a diet 
will offer a sufficienl amount of all kinds of foodstuffs and 
will thus meet all the various requirements of the body. 

253. Variety in Diet. — The old saying, "variety is the 
spice of life," holds good in the planning of meals. Effort 
should be made by the housekeeper to furnish variety and 
novelty in the preparation and serving of the more common 
foods in order to tempt the appetite and relieve the monotony 
of the ordinary diet. 

Great variety is not desirable at one meal, but the 
serving of any food prepared in the same way day after day 
is the surest way of making it a drug on the appetite. With 
over two hundred ways of cooking eggs, for instance, it 
is possible to surprise the family with a new dish occasionally. 

254. Aesthetic Considerations. — The appearance of a 
dish when served is more of a factor in its proper digestion 
than is always realized. A dish that is pleasing to the eye 
whets the appetite quite as much as one that is pleasing in 
flavor and lacking in attractiveness. 



FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 147 

Salads as a group of foods, offering as they do essential 
foods alone or in combination, furnish endless opportunity 
for the taste and originality of the housekeeper in producing 
pleasing effects. The plainest and most ordinary foods, 
by a tasteful use of some simple garnish, are made to appear 
unusual and interesting. Garnishes should, however, be of 
suitable materials, that is, should be some kind of edible 
greens or other food substance. Desserts are improved in 
appearance and hence in digestibility by dainty ways of 
serving. 

255. Protein Foods. — The protein foods are sometimes 
classified as A, B, C, and D proteins, according to their 
value in the nutrition of the body. To the A proteins 
belong the animal foods, lean meats of all kinds, fish, eggs, 
and milk, because they contain all the protein units which, 
when taken together, form the body proteins. 

Fish are plentiful and cheap in many localities and 
especially so in sea coast towns where they may be had 
fresh from the water. Fish offers a satisfying substitute 
for the red meats at least twice a week, and is substantial 
enough to take the place of the roast in the ordinary menu. 

Eggs should be used as freely as the income will allow, 
because of the combination of protein and the valuable 
vitamine substances (see Chapter XVI, par. 226). 

Milk should be provided for all members of the family 
but more especially for the young children. An allowance 
of one quart of milk a day each is urged for those members 
of the family group who have not yet reached full growth. 
This amount may be taken on cereals, in puddings, etc., 
if desired, instead of as a beverage. 

It has been said that as much money should be spent 
for milk as for meat in every household. Even at the 
present price per quart, fifty cents will purchase more 
nutriment in the form of milk than in the form of beef. 
Cheese, a product of milk, is a highly concentrated form of 
food and one which offers a good substitute for meat. 



148 FOOD 

The B and C proteins are those foods which are rich in 
protein but which contain more of other foodstuffs. In 
these classes not yet clearly defined we have the cereals, 
nuts, macaroni, and some vegetables. The protein content 
of such foods is inferior to that of animal foods because the 
units are in different relation to one another than the pro- 
tein units found in the body. In vegetables certain of these 
important units are lacking entirely. However, these foods 
may be combined with left-over meats or used alone occa- 
sionally to furnish a sufficient quantity of tissue building 
material for the day. 

To the D proteins belongs gelatin, which is of food value 
only as a "protein sparer," (see par. 192) since it in no way 
builds or repairs body tissue. 

256. Carbohydrate Foods. — Of the foods classified as 
carbohydrates, starches and sugars are the most important. 
The chief sources of starch are the cereals, potatoes, and 
bananas. Since it is necessary for normal metabolism 
that the greater number of calories of body heat be produced 
by carbohydrate foods, it is essential that some kind of 
cereal food form a part of the daily food allowance. The 
cereal savers — potatoes, sweet and white, and bananas — 
when eaten freely, take the place of a part of the grain 
products demanded. 

Sugar, which is only a fuel food, should be taken in 
combination with some building food, such as milk, eggs, 
etc., or with foods containing mineral matter, as fruits or 
green vegetables. Nearly all fruits contain sugar and may 
be used as sugar sparers, since less sugar is required when 
fruits are used in abundance. 

257. Fats. — The foods classed as fatty foods are butter 
and butter substitutes, cream, olive oil, bacon, and fat from 
meat and nuts. Butter and cream are probably the most 
important sources of easily digested fat. 

258. Mineral Matter. — The average diet provides for 
the ordinary mineral substances of the body in sufficient 



FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 149 

amounts. But the importance of iron, calcium and phos- 
phorus in normal nutrition is great enough to warrant 
special attention in selecting foods containing these in larger 
quantities. 

Milk is the chief source of calcium or lime, and where 
it is used plentifully, a proper supply of calcium is provided. 
Iron and phosphorus compounds are not always adequately 
supplied by a freely chosen diet. A list from which to 
select foods rich in the above minerals has been supplied 
in the previous chapter and attention should be given to 
selecting an abundance of these foods in planning meals. 

259. Water. — Water is needed to supply the needs of 
the tissues and to provide the fluids of the body. The old 
predjudice against drinking water at meals has been super- 
seded by the belief that one or two glasses of water at meals, 
if not taken to wash down the food, are beneficial. The 
liquid is regarded as a help in the digestion of the solid 
foods. 

260. Desirable Food Combinations. — A well planned 
menu leaves no room for criticism in regard to color, flavor, 
and attractiveness, besides representing the essential food- 
stuffs. In combining foods, the flavor, consistency, and 
similarity need special consideration. Insipid foods require 
piquant sauces. Two creamed dishes should not be served 
at the same meal, nor two kinds of sauce or gravy at the 
same time. The same kind of food should never be served 
twice in the same meal; for example tomato soup and 
stewed tomatoes as a vegetable, or fruit as an appetizer 
and as a salad or a dessert. Rich desserts are not needed 
after a hearty dinner. Fruit ices are better than rich creams. 
A simple green salad with French dressing is better for dinner 
than the heartier cheese, egg, or fish salad with mayon- 
naise. A hearty chowder or vegetable soup calls for a less 
heavy meat. Cream of vegetable soups are more suitable 
for luncheon and may furnish the hearty part of the meal, 
while the clear soups, consomme and bouillon, are better 



150 FOOD 

appetizers at the beginning of a hearty dinner. At least 
one succulent vegetable should be served with the dinner. 

Certain long-established food habits determine common 
food combinations: for example, apple sauce is served with 
pork or goose, boiled mutton is improved by caper sauce, 
roast lamb by mint sauce or currant jelly, and cheese is 
relished with pie. Back of each of these natural food 
choices is a principle which is recognized as the body's 
effort to regulate its own needs. The acid of apple sauce 
in the first instance helps to digest the fat in pork and goose. 
The sauces bring out the flavor of the meat in the second 
case, and the cheese furnishes the protein which the pie 
lacks. These examples illustrate the normal cravings of 
the body for foods easy of digestion, pleasant of flavor, and 
balanced in foodstuffs. 

261. Suggestions for the Meals of the Day. — (1) Break- 
fast, which is the simplest and most informal meal of the 
day, may consist of a choice of the following foods: 

Fruits, fresh or stewed. The mildly acid fruits are most 
desirable. 

A cereal served with cream or milk. The whole grain 
cereals are preferred because they furnish all of the nutrients 
of the grain. 

Meat, consisting of chops or steak or meat substitutes, 
eggs served in many ways, small fish, bacon, salt fish. 

Bread, hot or quick breads such as muffins, popovers, 
Johnny cake, griddle cakes, waffles, rolls, or toast. 

A beverage, as coffee, tea, cocoa, and milk. 

(2) Dinner, which is the heartiest meal of the day, is 
served at night or at the noon hour. The simple dinner 
has a soup, a meat, a salad and a dessert course. An elab- 
oration of these foundation courses constitutes the formal 
dinner menu. 

Soup — clear — consumme or bouillon. 

Meat — served in the form of a roast, meat pie, steak, 
stew, fish, and poultry. 



FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 151 

Vegetables — potatoes, and one other vegetable. 

Salad — some kind of green salad vegetable with French 
dressing. 

Dessert — ices, creams, simple puddings, fruits, with tea 
or coffee and milk. 

Soup and salad are not necessary at the same meal and 
one or the other may be eliminated if desired. The chief 
value of the clear soup at dinner is to stimulate the flow of 
the gastric juice and prepare the stomach for the hearty 
meal to follow. The salad course offers an opportunity 
to introduce a succulent vegetable into the menu, the value 
of which lies in its mineral and water content and the addi- 
tion of an easily digested form of fat in the salad dressing. 

(3) Luncheon or Supper, as the case may be, has the 
same number of courses as the dinner, but is made up of 
much less hearty foods. An informal luncheon may con- 
sist of one or two courses only and still offer the needed 
variety. 

Soup — cream of vegetable, clam chowder, or vegetable 
soup. 

Meat — a hot moat dish such as hash, stew, chops, made 
dishes, meat substitute dishes, scalloped dishes, fish, eggs. 

Bread in some form. 

Vegetables — poatoes such as creamed, scalloped, lyon- 
naise, etc., or other vegetables prepared in a simple way. 

Salad. — The salad may be hearty enough for the main 
course of the luncheon, as chicken, fish, egg, cheese, or fruit 
with mayonnaise dressing. 

Dessert — fruits, ices, creams, pastry, cakes, cookies. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Plan three meals a day for the different seasons. 
Estimate the daily food requirement and plan suitable meals to 
meet this requirement. 



152 



FOOD 



For Winter: 



SAMPLE MEALS 

Breakfast 

Stewed Prunes 

Oatmeal Cream or Milk 

Muffins Omelet 

Coffee 



Breakfast, 

Stewed prunes 

Rolled oats 

Thin cream 

Egg muffins 

Butter 

Omelet 

Coffee: 

Cream 

Sugar 



Amount. 

4 or 5 medium. . . 
2 tbsp. (cooked) . 

\ cupful 

2 

1 square (1 tbsp) 
1 egg 

1 tbsp. thick. . . . 

2 lumps 



Calories. 



100 
100 
150 
131 
100 
116 

50 
50 



797 



Luncheon 

Mixed Vegetable Soup 
Spaghetti and Rice Cheese Sauce 

Gingerbread Whipped cream 

Tea 



Luncheon. 


Amount. 


Calories. 


Vegetable soup 

Wafers 


1 cupful 


75 
50 


Spaghetti and rice with cheese sauce. . . 

Bread 

Butter 


f cupful 

Piece 2 X2 in 


235 

115 


2 tbsp. (unwhipped >. . . . 
1 square (1 tbsp.) 


100 
100 
100 
775 



Dinner 
Barley Soup 



Roast Pork 
Roasted Onions 
Roumaine Salad 



Mashed Potato 
Apple Sauce 
French Dressing 



Tapioca Sponge 
Coffee 



Dinner. 



Barley soup 

Roast pork 

Masned potato (seasoned) 

Roasted onion 

Apple sauce 

Roumaine salad and French dressing. 

Tapioca sponge 

Bread 

Butter 



Total for day , 



Amount. 



1 cupful 

1 serving (about 4 oz.). 

1 cupful 

1 large 

| cupful 

1 small serving 

\ cupful . . . 

2 thin slices 

1 square 



Calories. 



65 
320 
204 
. .65 

96 
100 
241 
100 
100 



1291 
2843 



FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 



153 



For Summer: 



Breakfast 

Moulded Farina with Fruit Cream or Milk 

Toast Coffee 



Breakfast. 


Amount. 


Calories. 


Farina with banana. . 


\ cupful farina, 1 banana 

\ cupful 

2 slices 


175 


Whole milk 

Toast .... 


63 
200 


Butter 

Coffee: 

Cream 

Sugar 


1 square 

1 tbsp 

2 lumps 


100 

100 

638 



Luncheon 

Cream of Spinach Soup 

Fruit and Nut Salad Boiled Dressing 

Graham Tea Biscuit 

Tea 



Luncheon. 



Cream of spinach soup 

Wafers 

Fruit and nut salad with boiled dressing 

Graham tea biscuit 

Butter 



Amount. 



1 cupful 
3 Saltines . 

1 cupful . . 

2 medium. 
1 square. . 



Calories. 



178 
50 
234 
116 
100 



678 



Dinner 

Planked White Fish 



New Potatoes 



Butter and parsley 



String Beans 
Cream Cheese and Prune Salad 
Lemon Ice 

Coffee 



French Dressing 
Cookies 



Dinner. 


Amount. 


Calories. 


Planked fish 


1 serving 

3 small, 1 tbsp. butter . . 
1 serving (| of qt.) 

3 medium 

3 balls 


180 


Potatoes with butter sauce 

String beans 

Salad: 

Prunes 

Cheese 


200 
54 

75 
100 


French dressing 


1 serving 

3 saltines . . 


90 


Wafers. . 


50 


Lemon ice 

Cookies 

Bread. 


1 serving 

2 medium 

2 thin slices . . 


120 

96 

100 


Butter 


1 square 


100 

1165 


Total for the day. 


2481 









154 



FOOD 



For a Meatless Day: 



Breakfast 



Steamed Barley 
Poached Egg 



Orange 



Coffee 



Cream or Milk 
Toast 



Breakfast 

Orange 

Steamed barley 

Thin cream 

Poached egg 

Toast 

Butter 

Coffee: 

Cream 

Sugar 



Amount 

1 large 

\ cupful 

\ cupful 

1 

2 slices 

1 square 

1 tbsp. (thick i. 

2 lumps 



Calories. 



100 
60 

150 
67 

200 

100 

50 
50 



77 



Ll'M III' '\ 

Baked Beans 

Lettuce and Grapefruit Salad 

Sponge Cake 
Tea 



Brown Bread 
French Dressing 



Luncheon. 


Amount. 


( 'alories. 


Baked beans 

Salad: 

Grapefruit 

French dressing 


-; cupful 

2 slices 

'. of medium 


200 
150 


i serving 

Piece 2 X2 in. 


140 


Sponge cake 


169 




659 



Dinner 

Little Neck Clams 

Nut and Cheese Loaf Tomato Sauce 

Stuffed Baked Potatoes Lima'Beans 

Hearts of Lettuce Russian Dressing 

Deep Apple Pie 

Coffee 



Dinner. 



Little Neck clams . . . 
Nut and cheese loaf. . 

Tomato sauce 

Stuffed baked potato. 

Lima beans 

Lettuce and dressing. 

Bread 

Butter 

Deep apple pie 



Total for day 



Amount. 



5 doz 

1 serving. . . 
1 serving. . . 
1 medium. . 
5 cupful . . . 

1 serving. . . 

2 thin slices 
I square . . . 
1 serving . . . 



Calories. 



40 
389 

93 
116 
100 
224 
100 
100 
224 



1386 
2822 



FOOD COMBINATIONS IN MEALS 



155 



For a Wheatless Day: 



Breakfast 

Baked Apple 
Fried Corn Mush 
( 'offee 



Maple Syrup 



Breakfast 

Baked apple 

Fried corn mush 

Maple syrup 

Coffee: 

Cream 

Sugar 



Amount. 

1 large 

1 serving 

2\ tablespoonful: 

1 tablespoonfuls 

2 lumps 



Calories. 



200 
100 
1 50 

50 
50 



550 



Luncheon 

Cream of Potato Soup 

Lentil and Pace Cakes 

Rye Rolls 

Sliced Pineapple Oatmeal Cookies 



Luncheon. 

Cream of potato soup. . . 
Lentil and rice cakes. . . . 

Rye rolls 

Butter 

Pineapple 

Oatmeal cookies 



Amount. 

1 cupful 

2 (small) 

2 (medium) 

1 square (1 tbsp.) 
1 slice 

3 (small) 



Calories. 



213 
205 
100 
100 
100 



793 



Dinner 

Roast Beef Sweet Potato Pone 

Baked Stuffed Tomatoes 

Asparagus and Pimento Salad Mayonnaise Dressing 

Cornmeal Crisps Butter 

Fruit Whip 



Dinner. 



Roast beef 

Sweet potato pone. . . 
Baked stuffed tomato 

Salad 

Mayonnaise dressing. . 

Corn meal crisps 

Butter 

Fruit whip 



Total for day 



Amount. 



2 thin slices (size of hand) 

1 medium 

1 medium 

1 portion 

1 portion 

5 small 

1 square 

1 portion 



Calories. 



200 

250 

35 

60 

224 

50 

100 

241 



1160 
2503 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 

262. Why Food Spoils. — The spoiling of food is due to 
two agencies. First, the action of bacteria, yeast, and mold 
plants causes undesirable and sometimes harmful changes 
to take place in food materials; second, there are present in 
eggs, meat, and the seeds of plants substances having the 
power to carry on certain change's in the foods. These 
changes, or life processes, are the natural ripening and matur- 
ing of fruits, the growing of seeds, and the final decay of all 
substances. 

The organisms which cause the fermentation and putre- 
faction of food materials are microscopic, that is, they can- 
not be seen without the aid of a microscope. Although we 
are unable to see the bacteria and other micro-organisms, 
they are present everywhere in the air, in the soil, and in 
water. We have proof of their activity in the odor of 
decayed food, the gas from fruit that is fermenting, and the 
mold on bread and other foods. These micro-organisms 
exist in two forms: the spore stage and the active stage. 
When conditions arc not right for their growth, they enter 
the spore stage for rest. In this form they are able to resist 
for hours a degree of heat equal to the boiling-point of water. 

All micro-organisms require warmth, moisture, food, 
and oxygen for normal growth and development. Con- 
ditions favorable for the grow T th of bacteria and other plant 
life are also favorable for the ripening, maturing, and decay- 
ing processes. Therefore, if the food is to be kept for a 
period of time it is necessary to protect it from the former, 
and to prevent the natural changes due to the latter by some 
form of preservation. 

156 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 157 

263. Ways of Preserving Foods. — Foods are preserved, 
according to their kind and condition, by any one of the 
following methods : 

(1) By the use of low temperature. 

(2) By the use of high temperature. 

(3) By the use of preservatives. 

(4) By the removal of moisture. 

264. Low Temperature. — By keeping them in cold 
storage or by freezing, many foods may be maintained for 
months in a fairly good condition. The low. temperatures 
interfere with the growth of the bacteria which causes 
putrefaction and decay. Eggs, meat, butter, fish, and 
poultry are the foods most commonly kept by this means. 

265. High Temperature Canning. — Success in canning 
depends upon the absolute sterilization (heating to the 
boiling-point and keeping there long enough to kill all 
living organisms) of the food and utensils used and the final 
exclusion of air by sealing the jar. 

A common method of canning is the open kettle method 
in which the fruit or vegetable is cooked in an open kettle 
and then packed in jars and sealed. This method offers too 
many chances for troublesome bacteria to enter the food to 
be entirely satisfactory. For this reason the open kettle 
method has been replaced by more dependable ones. 

The One-period Cold-pack Method.*— This method of 
canning fruits, vegetables, meats, and fish has been adopted 
for use in the home canning-club work of the United States 
Department of Agriculture in the Northern and Western 
States. By cold-pack is meant that the uncooked cooled 
product is packed in hot jars and covered with hot liquid of 

* According to a statement given out by the Bureau of Chemistry of the 
United States Department of Agriculture the danger of the food poisoning 
known as " Botulism " is eliminated by boiling the contents of the can for a 
few minutes before eating. The Bacillus Botulinus and the poison which 
it produces are destroyed by this treatment. 



158 



FOOD 



some kind. The jar is then partially sealed and placed 
in boiling water to cook. 

By one-period is meant the cooking of the product a 
sufficient length of time to complete the process at one time. 
This method necessitates less handling of the jars and con- 
sumes less time than the method known as intermittent 
sterilization. 

266. Steps in Canning. — There are six steps to be ob- 
served in the cold-pack method, as follows: 

(1) Preparation of Food Products and Utensils.- — -The 
jars and covers should be washed, placed in cold water 




Fir.. 37. — An improvised canning outfit. 



and heated to the boiling-point. The foods should be 
washed and pared, pits or cores should be removed, and the 
foods should then be cut in pieces when too large to use 
whole. All products for canning must be clean, sound, 
fresh, and not overripe. It is especially important that 
vegetables for canning be fresh from the garden. Most 
vegetables lose crispness and flavor on standing. 

(2) Blanching or Scalding. — The food materials should be 
placed in a colander, frying basket, or a piece of cheese 
cloth, and lowered into boiling water or live steam and kept 
there from one to fifteen minutes according to the kind of 
product. This process loosens the skin, takes out any 
excess of acid, and preserves the coloring matter in the food. 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 



159 



(3) Cold Dip. — The food material should then be taken 
from the boiling water or steam and plunged at once into 
cold water (the colder the better) for a few seconds and 
then drained. 

(4) Packing. — The cold-dipped articles should be packed 
at once into the hot jars. The jar should be filled as com- 
pletely as possible. If a vegetable, one teaspoonful of salt 





Fig. 38. — Unsealed Fig. 39. — Jar ready for Fig. 40. — Jar com- 
jar. sterilizing. pletely sealed. 

is added for each quart of material and the jar is filled with 
boiling water. In the case of fruit, boiling syrup takes the 
place of the water and salt. The scalded rubbers and tops 
of jars should now be put in place and the jar partly sealed. 

(5) Processing or Sterilizing. — The partially sealed jars 
should be lowered into a water bath which completely 
covers the jars and boiled for the length of time specified in 
Table XII, for the particular kind of food. 

(6) Sealing.— When the jars are removed from the hot 
water bath they should be entirely sealed and then inverted 
to cool. When sufficiently cool each one should be wrapped 
separately in paper and stored in a cool dry place. 

267. The Intermittent Method of Sterilization. — By 
this method the food is sterilized in the hot water bath for 



160 



FOOD 



TABLE XII.— TIME FOR CANNING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 

(Bulletin U. S. Dept. Agr.) 



Tood Material. 



Berries: 

Blackberries 

Blueberries . 

Gooseberries 

Raspberries 

Strawberries 
Soft Fruits: 

Apricots 

Cherries 

Currants 

Grapes 

Peaches 

Plums 

Hard Fruits: 

Apples 

Pears 

Quinces 

Spccia!\ egetables: 

Tomatoes. . . . 

Pumpkin 

Squash 

Sweet Corn . . 
Pod Yii.it tables: 

Beans, wax . . 

Beans, green. . 

Okra 

Cauliflower . . 
Root Vegetables: 

Carrots 

Beets 

Turnips 

Greens: 

Chard 

Kale 

Asparagus. . . . 

Spinach 

Beet tops 

Dandelion 



Method of Preparation. 



Stem or hull, rinse in cold 
water, pack in hot jars/ 



Peel 

Stone 

Stem 

Seed 

Peel and stone 
Wash 



Peel, quarter and core 
Peel, cut in half, core . 
Peel, quarter 



Remove skins 

Peel and cut in pieces. . 
Peel and cut in pieces. . 

Remove husk and silk. 

Wash and string 

Wash and string 

Wash 

Soak in brine 1 hour... 



Wash and scrape 

Wash and scrape 

Peel and cut in pieces. 



Look over and wash. 
Look over and wash 
Wash and scrape . . . 
Look over and wash 
Look over and wash 
Look over and wash 



Time in Minutes. 



Scalding or 
Blanching. 



1-2 



1-2 



H 

14 

H 



3 
3 
5 

5-10 
5-10 
5-10 
• 3 

5 
5 
5 

15 in live steam 
15 in live steam 
15 in live steam 
15 in live steam 
15 in live steam 
15 in live steam 



Sterilizing. 



16 



16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 

20 
20 
20 

22 
120 
120 
180 

120 

120 

120 

60 

90 
90 
90 

120 
120 
120 
120 
120 
120 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 161 

a given period of time on three successive days. All spores 
that may have resisted the previous boiling processes are 
destroyed at the end of this period. This extra sterilizing 
is not always necessary but is considered a wise precaution. 

268. The Use of Preservatives. — By preservatives is 
meant such substances as prevent or hinder the development 
of micro-organisms in food. They may be classed as harm- 
less, of doubtful safety, and harmful. The harmless preserva- 
tives are sugar, salt, vinegar, and spice. Those about which 
there is some doubt are saltpeter and smoke. The use of 
harmful preservatives comes under the regulations of the 
Food Laws and will not be discussed here. 

Sugar. — In a concentrated solution sugar will arrest the 
growth of bacteria. In dilute form with spices or vinegar 
it is also a valuable aid in restricting the growth of organisms. 

Preserves and Conserves are mixtures of fruits, nuts and 
spices with a high percentage of sugar to make them rich 
and to control the growth of bacteria. 

Jams and Marmalades are also rich, sweet compounds 
containing the juice and pulp of the fruit. They, like pre- 
serves, depend upon the fifty or more per cent of sugar to 
keep them from spoiling. 

Jelly* — The jelly-making substance, pectin, is best 
obtained by cooking the fruit with water until the juice is 
freed from the pulp. Pectin, a substance closely related to 
starch in chemical composition, is an essential constituent 

* The United States Bureau of Chemistry recommends the alcohol test 
to determine the amount of pectin present in a fruit juice and incidentally 
the amount of sugar required to make a perfect jelly. Put a spoonful of 
juice in a beaker and add to it a spoonful of 95 per cent grain alcohol. Shake 
gently and note the amount of pectin precipitated. If the precipitate forma 
in a mass, one cupful of sugar is required for each cupful of fruit juice. If 
the precipitate is broken up into several parts, one-half to three-fourths 
cupful of sugar for each cupful of juice is needed to form a perfect jelly. 
If the pectin is precipitated but not in a mass, the proportion of sugar 
required is one-half or less than the amount of juice used. Fruit juice that 
shows no precipitate in this test is lacking in pectin and will not make jelly 
unless combined with juices rich in pectin. 



162 FOOD 

of fruit juice that is to be used for jelly making. The 
amount of sugar needed for a perfect jelly must be in pro- 
portion to the pectin in the juice. The time required for 
cooking depends upon the degree of concentration of the 
juice. 

Salt and Vinegar are classed as preservatives chiefly 
because they protect food materials from the action of 
micro-organisms that cause decomposition. 

Spices. — Some spices are slightly eft ret ive as preservatives, 
others are entirely lacking in power to prevent the decay of 
food. As condiments such materials stimulate digestion 
and, if used in large quantities, are harmful because of the 
danger of over stimulation of the digestive organs. Highly 
spiced foods are recommended for use in small quantities 
as condiments rather than for their food value. 

268. Doubtful Preservatives. — Saltpeter is used in curing 
meats. It prevents the removal of color by the salt in the 
pickle. Because of its astringent action on foods, saltpeter 
is of doubtful value as a preservative. 

Smoke owes its preservative qualities to the creosote it 
produces. It is sometimes used in curing beef, tongue, 
hams, and dried beef, because of the action of the creosote 
in arresting the growth of bacteria and also for the flavor 
it imparts to the meat. 

269. Removal of Moisture or Drying. — When fruits or 
vegetables are cut in thin slices and spread out, they begin 
to lose moisture by evaporation. If a current of dry, 
warm air is constantly passed over them, the moisture will 
evaporate more quickly and the materials will soon become 
dry and crisp. 

There are three methods by which the moisture of fruits 
and vegetables may be removed. The sun's rays will 
evaporate moisture rapidly. Many fruits and vegetables 
are successfully dried by this natural agent. Artificial 
heat removes moisture quickly and the heat of the stove has 
been utilized for drying purposes in the many patent driers 



THE PRESERVATION OF FOODS 



163 



now on the market. One of these is shown in Fig. 42. 
The main object with all devices is to reduce the food sub- 
stances to a dry leathery mass in a short time. In applying 
artificial heat it must be remembered that heat greater than 







m 



Fig. 41. — Sun drying. 
(U. S. Dept. of Agri culture.) 




Fig. 42. — Drying by artificial heat. 

150° F. is liable to scorch and brown the food, especially at 
the beginning of the process. 

A current of dry air constantly passing over food will 
dry out the moisture in a comparatively short time. An 
electric fan makes an excellent drier at small cost. 

270. Advantages in Drying Fruits and Vegetables.— By 
adopting some method of drying, the surplus of perishable 



164 FOOD 

foods, which would otherwise be wasted, may be conserved. 
A considerable saving in the cost of food may often be 
effected in this way. Advantage may also be taken of an 
overstocked market and fruits and vegetables obtained in 
quantity at relatively low prices. When properly prepared, 
dried fruits and vegetables are acceptable substitutes when 
fresh varieties are out of season or scarce and high priced. 

Drying may be adopted in place of canning, when jars 
are scarce. The dried products may frequently be stored 
in quantity in less space than would be required for jars 
or other containers. 

271. Preparation of Foods for Drying. — Vegetables should 
be scrubbed clean, peeled or scraped, and sliced thin, or 
put through one of the various patent slicers or shredders, 
to make the pieces of uniform thickness so that they will 
dry evenly. Blanching is desirable for vegetables that have 
a strong flavor .and odor, because it takes out some of the 
objectionable flavor and odor and also helps to soften the 
fiber. Fruits are prepared as for canning except that 
larger fruits should be cut in small pieces to facilitate the 
drying process. 

272. Storing Dried Foods. — Food materials should be 
packed in tightly covered containers promptly after drying. 
Tin cans and glass jars may be used, but pasteboard recep- 
tacles with tight covers or even paper bags are protection 
enough for properly dried materials. 

To test when foods are dry enough to store, place a crisp 
cracker in the container with the food and allow it to remain 
overnight. If the cracker is still crisp when removed in 
the morning, the product is without moisture. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR LABORATORY PRACTICE 

In connection with the study of the text of the preceding chapter: 
Can fruits and vegetables in season by the one-period, cold-pack 
method. 

Dry fruits and vegetables in season. 



GLOSSARY 

Absorption: The process of being absorbed or swallowed up. 

Accelerate : To quicken, or hasten a process. 

Acid: A substance capable of combining with a base to form a salt, 

and of turning blue litmus paper red. Sour to the taste. 
Acidity: Sourness to the taste. 
Acidosis: An abnormal body condition when acid is present in the 

tissues. 
Acrid: Sharp or bitter to the taste; causing irritation. 
Adjunct: Something joined to another thing without being a part 

of it. 
Adulterate : To make a substance impure by mixing with it another 

substance of less value. 
Aerate : To combine with gas. 
Alkali: A caustic base which neutralizes acids and turns red litmus 

paper blue. 
Amino Acids: A constituent of body protein. 
Assimilation: Conversion of food into the substance of an animal 

or vegetable body. 
Calorie : The unit of heat. 
Carbonate: A compound formed by the union of carbonic acid 

with a base. 
Cell: A tiny particle of matter consisting of protoplasm, in which 

floats a nucleus, surrounded by a cell wall. 
Cellulose: The plant fiber which is an essential part of the wall 

membrane of plant cells. 
Chlorophyl: The green coloring matter of plants. 
Coagulate: To change from a fluid into a curd like or thickened 

mass. 
Colloid: Semi-solid, non-crystallizable substance like glue or jelly. 
Colloidal: Containing a colloid in solution. 
Compound: A substance composed of two or more elements. 
Dialyzable: Capable of diffusion through natural membranes. 
Dietary: A fixed allowance of food; a rule of diet. 
Dietetics: The science of diet; the study of food and nutrition in 

health and disease. 
Diluent: Making thinner or weaker by admixture usually of water. 

165 



166 GLOSSARY 

Disintegrate: To break up. To separate into parts. 
Effervescence: The process. by which gas is given off from a 

liquid. 
Effete: Worn out with age. 

Element: The simplest form of matter in which all atoms are alike. 
Emulsion: A liquid full of tiny fat globules. 
Enzyme: A group of substances found in plants and animals, which 

has the power of decomposing certain carbon compounds found 

associated with them. 
Esophagus: The tube which takes the food from the mouth to the 

stomach. 
Evaporate : To pass off in the form of vapor. 
Ferment: A substance formed by the living cell and capable of acting 

chemically on food without any change taking place in itself. 
Fermentation: A chemical change of organic substances by which 

they are decomposed and recombined into new compounds. 
Fibrin: The form of protein found in coagulated blood. 
Filter: To purify by passing through a porous substance. 
Filtrate: The substance which has been filtered or purified. 
Formula: A symbolic expression by letters or figures, of the chemical 

constituents of a compound. 
Function: Appropriate action of a physical organ. 
Inimical: Opposed to, unfriendly. 
Inulin: A form of carbohydrate found in many plants; heated with 

water or dilute acid it is converted into kevulose. 
Intermittent: Coming and going at intervals. 
Lacteals: That part of the lymphatic system which carries the food 

from the intestines to the thoracic duct. 
Liver: The largest gland in the body, lying immediately under the 

diaphragm. The cells of the liver separate certain substances 

from the blood and manufacture them into a dark green liquid 

called bile. The liver cells also act on certain parts of the food 

brought by the blood vessels from the intestines and hold some 

of it in storage. 
Lymphatics : Small blood vessels which carry food from the intestines. 
Microbe: A small living thing. 

Micro-orgaxism : A microscopic organism, as a bacillus. 
Mucous Membrane: The lining membrane of the alimentary canal. 
Nucleus: A differentiated round or oval body embedded in the proto- 
plasm of a cell. 
Nutrient: Something that nourishes. 
Precipitate: A substance which separates in the solid state when 

two liquids are mixed. 



GLOSSARY 167 

Protoplasm: An albuminoid substance resembling white of egg, 
and capable of manifesting vital phenomena. The chief part 
of every cell. 

Protoplasmic: First formed as a constituent of organic bodies. 

Ptomaine: A poison developed in food by bacteria. 

Saturated Solution: A solution which at a given temperature con- 
tains such a quantity of a substance that the two are in equi- 
librium, there being no tendency for more of the- substance to 
pass into a solution. 

Soluble : Capable of being dissolved in a fluid. 

Solution: The conversion of a substance from the solid or gaseous 
state to the liquid state by treatment with a liquid. 

Solvent: Any fluid or substance that dissolves or renders other bodies 
liquid. 

Sterilize : To render free from living germs. 

Pancreas: A gland situated in the abdomen near the stomach which 
pours its secretion into the small intestine. 

Parasite : An animal that lives on or in and at the expense of another 
animal. A plant which grows upon another plant or upon 
an animal and feeds upon its juices. 

Peristalsis: The involuntary muscular movement of the alimentary 
canal whereby its contents are propelled forward. 

Temperature: The degree of heat of a body. 

Tissues: An aggregation of cells and cell products. 

Vacuum : An empty space. 

Volatile Oils: Substances present in fruits, flowers, and some plants 
which give the characteristic odor and flavor. 



INDEX 



Acids, amino, 2 

butyric, 83 

palmitic, 83 

oleic, 83 

stearic, 83 
Air, as a leaven, 39 
Alimentary canal, diagram of, 5 
parts, 5 
work of, 5 
Amylopsin, 6 
Animal food, 2 
Arrowroot, 22 
Artichokes, 71 

French, 74 

Jerusalem, 71 

Baking powders, analysis of, 40, 41 

home made, 42 

kinds, 40 
Barley, 28 
Batter, definition of, 42 

drop-batter, 44 
. pour-batter, 44 
Beans, 69 

appearance of, 69 

composition, 69 

cooking, 69 

soy, 3 
Beef, characteristics, 106 

cuts of, 107, 108 
Beverages, 129 

effect on body, 134 
Bicarbonate of soda, action with 
acids, 41, 42 

source, 41 



Bile, 6 

Body energy, requirement, 140 

source, 1 
Breads, 44 

baking, 57 

digestibility, 61 

effect of ingredients on loaf, 
57 

judging loaf, 61 

mixer, 57, 58 

mixing and kneading, 55 

quick process, 55 

yeast, 54 
Brussels sprouts, 74 
Buckwheat, 28 
Bulbs as foods, 72 
Butter, 83, 94 

composition of, 95 

substitutes, 85, 95 

value as food, 85 

Cakes, 44 

baking, 50, 51 

butter, 46 

points of good, 51, 52 

sponge, 44 
Calcium, 126, 149 
Calorie, 141 

Canning, 157, 158, 159, 160 
Carbon dioxide, 40, 41, 57, 60 
Carbohydrate, 2, 148 
Cellulose, 20 

cooking of, 4 

digestion, 20 

food value of, 20 



169 



170 



INDEX 



Cereals, 24, 148 

as breakfast foods, 24 

common cereals, 24 

cooking, 29 

digestion of, 28 

sparers, 148 
Cheese, kinds, 95 

value as food, 95 
Chloride, sodium, 126, 136 
Chocolate, composition, 133 

nutritive value, 134 

source, 133 
Cocoa, source, 133 

value, 133 
Coffee, 131 

adulteration, 132 

caffein, 130 

effect on body, 134 

experiments, 133 

preparation, 132 

substitutes, 132 
Compounds, 2 
Condiments, value of, 136 
Corn, preparation, 26 

syrup, 26 
Crabs, 124 
Cream of Tartar, 40 

source of, 41 

use, 42 

Dasheen, 71 
Dextrin, 12, 21 
Dextrose, 12 
Diet, 146 

variety in, 146 
Digestion, definition, 5 

process of, 5, 6 
Dough, 44, 53 

soft, 44 

stiff, 44, 62 
Drying, 162 

methods, 163, 164 

storing, 164 



Eggs, 97, 147. 

composition, 97 

digestibility, 98 

experiments, 103 

food value, 98 

preparation for eating, 102 

preservation, 101 

selection and care, 99 

structure, 97 
Elements, 2 
Enzymes, 5 

Fat, clarifying, 88 

composition, 2 

cooking in, 87 

digestibility, 84 

experiments, 89 

function in body, 3, 84 

kinds, 85 

melting point, 83 

milk fat, 91 

properties, 83 

rendering, 88 

sources, 85 

test for, 3 
Fehling's solution, 3 
Fish, 118, 147 

choosing, 119 

common, 120 

composition, 118 

cooking of, 1 19 

preserving, 120 

shell, 122 

special kinds, 120 

unusual kinds, 122 
Flour mixtures, 39, 53 

classification, 42 
Fireless cooker, 32 

home-made cooker, 34 

principle of, 33 

selection, 34 

use of, 35 
Food, absorption, 7 



INDEX 



171 



Food, adults and children, 145 

amount required, 140 

animal, 2 

assimilation, 7 

changes, 4 

classification, 1 

combinations, 149 

cost of, 145 

definition of, 1 

energy value, 141 

need for growth, 140, 141 

preservation, 156 
Foodstuffs, 2 

composition of, 2 

tests for, 3 
Fructose, 13 
Fruits, 77 

canning, 158 

composition, 77 

dried, 79, 163 

food value, 78 

preserving, 79 

selecting, 78 

storing, 79, 164 

Galactose, 13 
Gastric juice, 6 
Game, 114 
Gelatin, 112, 148 
Gliadin, 54 
Glycerides, 83 
Glycerol, 83 
Glycogen, 14, 21 
Gluten, 54 
Glutenin, 54 
Guinea fowl, 116 

Honey, 15, 16 
Hydrochloric acid, 6 

Income, 143 
Inorganic food, 1 
Intestine, small, 6 



Intestine, large, 7 
Iron, 126 

Jams, 80, 161 
Jellies, 80, 161, 162 

Lactose, 13 
Lamb, 110 
Leavens, 39 
Leavening agents, 39 
Legumes, 67 

cooking, 69 

food value, 68 
Levulose, 13 
Lipase, 6 
Lobster, 124 

Macaroni, 31 
Maltose, 5 
Maple sugar, 15 
Marmalade, 80, 161 
Marrow, 86 
Meals, 143 

balanced, 146 

sample, 152, 153, 154, 155 

suggestions for, 150 
Meat, 104 

composition of, 104 

cooking, 105 

digestibility, 105 

experiments, 113 

food value, 105 

kinds, 104 

ripening, 104 

selecting, 105 

structure, 104 
Milk, care of, 92 

certified, 93 

compositon of, 90 

condensed, 93 

cooking with, 94 

digestibility, 92 

food value, 90 



172 



INDEX 



Milk, malted, 94 

powders, 93 

modified, 94 

pasteurized, 93 

sterilized, 93 
Mineral matter, 3, 148 

definition, 125 

function, 3, 125 

in milk, 92 

sources, 120 

test for, 3 
Molasses, 15 
Mussels, 124 
Mutton, 109 

Noodles, 31 

Nuts, composition, 80 

digestibility, 80 

flavor, SO 

food value. 81 

use in cooking, 81 

< >at>, preparation and food value, 

24 
Oil, 86 

cod liver, 86 

cottonseed, 87 

olive, 86 

( Irganic foods, 1 

( Organism, 1 

Organs, internal as food, 111 

( bridized tissue, 1 

Pancreas, 7 
Pastry, 62 

baking, 62 

digestibility, 63 

Peptones, 6 
Pepsin, 6 
Phosphorous, 126 
Pork, cuts of, 101 
Poultry, 114 

composition, 114 



Poultry, digestion of, 114 

preparation, 116 

selection, 115 
Preservatives, 161 

kinds, 161, 162 

use of, 161 
Pressure cooker, 38 
Proteins, 2, 147, 148 

function in body, 3 

milk, 91 

test for, 3 

wheat, 54 
Ptyalin, 5 

Rcnnen, 6 
Rice, 26 

Roots, as food, 71 
Rye, 28 

Sago, 22 

Salt, 126, 162 

Shrimps, 124 

Spaghetti, 31 

Spices, 137,162 

Squab, 116 

Starch, as body regulator, 19 

composition, 18 

cooking, 20 

food value, 18 

function in body, 19 

source, 18 

structure, 18 

tests for, 3 
Steapsin, 6 
Sterilizing, 159 

milk, 93 
Sugar, 1, 148, 162 

body regulator, 14 

cane, 13 

commercial, 15 

composition, 12 

digestion of, 14 

disaccharides, 12 



INDEX 



173 



Sugar, grape, 7 
monosaccharides, 12 
source of energy, 13 
sucrose, 13 
test for, 3 

Tapioca, 21 
Tannin, 130 
Tea, 129 

classes, 130 

effect on body ; 134 

grades, 130 
Temperature, 10 

boiling-point, 10 
Terrapin, 124 

Thermos bottle, principle of, 36, 37 
Tissue, body, 1, 2 
Trypsin, 6 
Tubers, 71 
Turkey, 116 

Veal, 108 

Vegetables, classification, 64 

composition, 64 

cooking, 65 

definition of, 64 

digestion of, 65 



Vegetables, food value, 65 

green vegetables, 74 

selection, 65 
Vinegar, 136, 162 
Vitamines, 3, 127 

function in body, 128 

Water, 1, 149 

amount required, 9 

as body regulator, 9 

as cooking medium, 10 

composition, 2, 8 

function in body, 8 

solvent, 8 

stimulant, 8 
Wheat, as breakfast food, 24 

milling, 54 

structure of kernel, 53 

varieties, 53 

Yeast, 58 

commercial, 58 

compressed, 60 

dry, 60 

function in bread making, 61 

liquid, 60 

sources, 58 



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